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 Chapter 10
10.1 Binary data is transmitted over an AWGN channel with a power spectral density
N o / 2 = 10−9 W/Hz. Determine the signal amplitude A required to achieve a BER
= 10 −6 , when the data rate is (a) 1 Mb/s, (b) 10 Mb/s, and (c) 100 Mb/s. Evaluate
for unipolar NRZ and RZ line coding schemes. What is the channel first- null
bandwidth required in each case?

Solution:

For unipolar NRZ signaling,

⎛ Eb ⎞
BER = Q ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ using a MF receiver
⎝ No ⎠

N o / 2 = 10−9 ⇒ N o = 2 ×10−9

Using Table 6.1, we get x = 4.7535 for BER = 10-6.

Eb
∴ = ( 4.7535) = 22.6 ⇒ Eb = 4.519 ×10−8
2

No

A 2Tb
Now Eb =
2

(a) R = 1 Mbps, ∴Tb = 10−6

4.519 ×10 −8 × 2
A =
2
⇒ A = 0.3 V
10−6

(b) R = 10 Mbps, ∴Tb = 10−7

4.519 ×10−8 × 2
A2 = ⇒ A = 0.95 V
10−7

(c) R = 100 Mbps, ∴Tb = 1×10−8

4.519 ×10−8 × 2
A =
2
⇒ A=3V
10−8

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manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
 A2Tb ⎛ Eb ⎞
For unipolar RZ line coding scheme Eb = and BER = Q ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ using a
4 ⎝ N o ⎠
MF receiver. From Table 6.1, we get x = 4.7535 for BER = 10-6.

Eb
∴ = ( 4.7535) = 22.6 ⇒ Eb = 4.519 ×10−8
2

No

Now

(d) R = 1 Mbps, ∴Tb = 10−6

4.519 × 10−8 × 4
A2 = ⇒ A = 0.425 V
10−6

(e) R = 10 Mbps, ∴Tb = 10−7

4.519 ×10−8 × 4
A2 = ⇒ A = 1.34 V
10−7

(f) R = 100 Mbps, ∴Tb = 1×10−8

4.519 ×10−8 × 4
A2 = ⇒ A = 4.25 V
10−8

The following table summarizes the results.

Bit Rate Unipolar NRZ Unipolar RZ

(Mbps)
Amplitude (V) BW (MHz) Amplitude (V) BW (MHz)

1 0.3 1 0.425 2

10 0.95 10 1.34 20

100 3.0 100 4.25 200 ,

10.2 Consider a binary signaling system using sinusoidal pulses

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 ⎛ πt ⎞
s1 (t ) = A sin ⎜ ⎟ , 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb
⎝ Tb ⎠
s 2 (t ) = 0

A correlation detector is used for the detection of transmitted symbols at the output
of an AWGN channel with noise spectral density N o / 2 = 2.8 × 10−11 W/Hz.

a. Determine an expression for the average probability of bit error assuming

equiprobable binary data.

Solution:

The BER for a correlation or MF detector is given by

⎛ Eb ⎞
BERMF = Q ⎜
⎜ N ⎟⎟
⎝ o ⎠

where

1 1 E
Eb = Average energy/bit = E1 + 0 = 1
2 2 2

Tb ⎛ πt ⎞ A2 Tb ⎡ ⎛ 2π t ⎞ ⎤ A2Tb
E1 = ∫ A sin ⎜ ⎟ dt =
2 2
∫ ⎢1 − cos ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ dt =
0
⎝ Tb ⎠ 2 0
⎢⎣ ⎝ Tb ⎠ ⎥⎦ 2

N o / 2 = 2.8 ×10−11 ⇒ N o = 5.6 × 10−11

Substituting

⎛ A2T ⎞
BER = Q ⎜ b
⎟
⎜ 4 No ⎟
⎝ ⎠

b. Evaluate the bit error rate for A = 50 mV and the bit rate of 1 Mb/s.

Solution:

⎛ ⎞
( 50 ×10 )
2
−3
⎜ × 10−6 ⎟
BER = Q ⎜ −11 ⎟ = Q ( 3.34 ) = 4.2 × 10−4
⎜ 4 × 5.6 × 10 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

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manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
 c. How much does the received pulse amplitude A have to increase for the same
BER performance when the bit rate is doubled?

Solution:

To assure the same BER performance, the argument of Q function in the BER
expression must remain the same when the bit rate is doubled. Therefore,

A2 × 0.5 ×10−6 11.16 × 4 × 5.6 ×10−5

= 3.34 ⇒ A2
= = 5 ×10−3 ⇒ A = 70.7 mV
4 × 5.6 ×10−11 0.5

10.3 A binary signaling system uses pulses s1 (t ) and s2 (t ), 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb to transmit

binary data occurring with probabilities p and 1 − p , respectively . A matched
filter detector is used for the detection of transmitted symbols at the output of an
AWGN channel with noise spectral density N o / 2 W/Hz.

a. Show that the optimum threshold value Vopt is given by

No p s +s
Vopt = log e + o1 o 2
2 1− p 2

where so1 and so 2 are given by (10.41) and (10.42), respectively.

Solution:

⎛ s −V ⎞ ⎛ VT − so 2 ⎞
BER = pQ ⎜ o1 T ⎟ + (1 − p )Q ⎜ ⎟
⎝ σo ⎠ ⎝ σo ⎠

d ( BER) p 1 − (V − s ) 2 /2σ 2 1− p 1 − (V − s )2 /2σ o2

= e opt o1 o − e opt o 2 =0
dVT V =Vopt
2 2πσ o2 2 2πσ o2
T

⎛ p ⎞ (V − s ) ⎛ 1 − p ⎞ (Vopt − so 2 )
2 2

log e ⎜ ⎟ − opt 2 o1 = log e ⎜ ⎟ −

⎝2⎠ 2σ o ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2σ o2
⎛ p⎞ ⎛ 1− p ⎞
2σ o2 log e ⎜ ⎟ + 2Vopt so1 − so21 = 2σ o2 log e ⎜ ⎟ + 2Vopt so 2 − so 2
2

⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ p ⎞
2σ o2 log e ⎜ ⎟ + 2Vopt so1 − so1 = 2Vopt so 2 − so 2
2 2

⎝ 1− p ⎠

Now solving for Vopt , we obtain

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 =
σ o2 ⎛ p ⎞
+
(
so22 − so21 )
( so 2 − so1 ) e ⎜⎝ 1 − p ⎟⎠ 2 ( so 2 − so1 )
Vopt log

σ o2 ⎛ p ⎞ so1 + so 2
= + (*)
( so 2 − so1 ) ⎝ 1 − p ⎟⎠
log e ⎜
2

For MF detection

d 2 = so1 − so 2 = so 2 − so1

No ∞ N o 2 N o ( so 2 − so1 )
∫
2
σ o2 = H opt ( f ) df = d =
2 −∞ 2 2

Substituting into (*) yields

No p s +s
Vopt = log e + o1 o 2
2 1− p 2

b. What is optimum threshold value when the binary signals are equiprobable?

Solution:

1
When the binary signals are equiprobable, p = 1 − p = . Substituting yields
2
so1 + so 2
Vopt =
2

c. Show that the average probability of error for the system is given by

⎛ so1 − so 2 N o p ⎞ ⎛ No p s −s ⎞
⎜ − log e ⎟ ⎜ log e + o1 o 2 ⎟
1− p 1− p
BER = pQ ⎜ ⎟ + (1 − p )Q ⎜ 2 ⎟
2 2 2
⎜ N o ( so 2 − so1 ) ⎟ ⎜ N o ( so 2 − so1 ) ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

Solution:

Substituting Vopt into the BER expression yields

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 ⎛ No p so1 + so 2 ⎞ ⎛ No p so1 + so 2 ⎞
⎜ so1 − 2 log e 1 − p − 2 ⎟ ⎜ 2 log e 1 − p + 2
− so 2 ⎟
BER = pQ ⎜ ⎟ + (1 − p )Q ⎜ ⎟
⎜ σo ⎟ ⎜ σo ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ so1 − so 2 N o p ⎞ ⎛ No p s −s ⎞
⎜ − log e ⎟ ⎜ log e + o1 o 2 ⎟
1− p 1− p
= pQ ⎜ ⎟ + (1 − p )Q ⎜ 2 ⎟
2 2 2
⎜ N o ( so 2 − so1 ) ⎟ ⎜ N o ( so 2 − so1 ) ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

10.4 The binary signaling system in Problem 10.3 uses antipodal pulses
s1 (t ) = AΠ ( t / Tb ) = − s2 (t ) .

a. Show that the optimum threshold value Vopt is given by

No p
Vopt = log e
2 1− p

Solution:

For antipodal signaling, so1 = − so 2 . Substituting

σ o2 ⎛ p ⎞ so1 + so 2
Vopt = +
( so 2 − so1 ) ⎝ 1 − p ⎟⎠
log e ⎜
2
N p
= o log e
2 1− p

b. Calculate the value of optimum threshold Vopt for following a priori bit
probabilities (i) p = 0.5,1 − p = 0.5 , (ii) p = 0.3,1 − p = 0.7 , p = 0.8,1 − p = 0.2 .

Solution:

( p,1 − p ) Vopt
( 0.5, 0.5) 0
( 0.3,0.7 ) −0.423N o
( 0.8, 0.2 ) 0.693 N o

c. Show that the average probability of error for the system is given by

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 ⎛ No p ⎞ ⎛ No p ⎞
⎜ 2 Eb − 2 log e 1 − p ⎟ ⎜ 2 log e 1 − p + 2 Eb ⎟
BER = pQ ⎜ ⎟ + (1 − p )Q ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 N o Eb ⎟ ⎜ 2 N o Eb ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Solution:

By combining (10.43), (10.44), and (10.54), we obtain the following the

following relationship for antipodal signaling .

∞
so1 − so 2 = d 2 = ∫ s (t ) − s (t )
2
1 2 dt = 4Eb .
−∞

Substituting

⎛ No p ⎞ ⎛ No p ⎞
⎜ 2 Eb − 2 log e 1 − p ⎟ ⎜ 2 log e 1 − p + 2 Eb ⎟
BER = pQ ⎜ ⎟ + (1 − p )Q ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 N o Eb ⎟ ⎜ 2 N o Eb ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

When the binary signals are equiprobable

1 ⎛ 2 Eb ⎞ 1 ⎛ 2 Eb ⎞ ⎛ 2 Eb ⎞
BER = Q⎜ ⎟⎟ + Q ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = Q ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2 ⎜⎝ N o ⎠ 2 ⎝ No ⎠ ⎝ No ⎠

10.5 The binary signaling system in Problem 10.3 uses unipolar NRZ pulses
s1 (t ) = AΠ ( t / Tb ) and s2 (t ) = 0 .

a. Show that the optimum threshold value Vopt is given by

No ⎛ p ⎞
Vopt = log e ⎜ ⎟ + Eb
2 ⎝ 1− p ⎠

Solution:

σ o2 ⎛ p ⎞ so1 + so 2
Vopt = +
( so 2 − so1 ) ⎝ 1 − p ⎟⎠
log e ⎜
2

For unipolar signaling

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manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
 d 2 = so 2 − so1 = 2 Eb
No 2
σ o2 = d = N o Eb
2
so1 + so 2
= Eb
2
A2Tb
where Eb = is average energy/bit. Substituting
2
N E ⎛ p ⎞
Vopt = o b log e ⎜ ⎟ + Eb
2 Eb ⎝ 1− p ⎠
No ⎛ p ⎞
= log e ⎜ ⎟ + Eb
2 ⎝ 1− p ⎠

b. Calculate the value of optimum threshold Vopt for following a priori bit
probabilities (i) p = 0.5,1 − p = 0.5 , (ii) p = 0.3,1 − p = 0.7 , p = 0.8,1 − p = 0.2 .

Solution:

( p,1 − p ) Vopt
( 0.5, 0.5) Eb
( 0.3,0.7 ) Eb − 0.423 N o
( 0.8, 0.2 ) Eb + 0.693N o

c. Write an expression for the average probability of error at the detector output.

Solution:

⎛ so1 − so 2 N o p ⎞ ⎛ No p s −s ⎞
⎜ − log e ⎟ ⎜ log e + o1 o 2 ⎟
2 2 1− p 2 1− p 2
BER = pQ ⎜ ⎟ + (1 − p )Q ⎜ ⎟
⎜ σo ⎟ ⎜ σo ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ No p ⎞ ⎛ No p ⎞
⎜ Eb − 2 log e 1 − p ⎟ ⎜ 2 log e 1 − p + Eb ⎟
= pQ ⎜ ⎟ + (1 − p )Q ⎜ ⎟
⎜ N o Eb ⎟ ⎜ N o Eb ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

When the binary signals are equiprobable

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 1 ⎛ Eb ⎞ 1 ⎛ Eb ⎞ ⎛ Eb ⎞
BER = Q⎜ ⎟ + Q⎜ ⎟ = Q⎜
2 ⎜⎝ N o ⎟⎠ 2 ⎜⎝ N o ⎟⎠ ⎜ N ⎟⎟
⎝ o ⎠

10.6 Consider the binary digital communication system using antipodal signaling. The
received signal corresponding to binary “1” is given by

r (t ) = s1 (t ) + n(t )

where s1 (t ) is shown in Figure P10.1 and n(t ) is AWGN with power spectral
density N o / 2 Watts/Hz.

(a) hopt (t ) (b)

s1 (t )
A A

t t
0 Tb / 2 Tb 0 Tb / 2 Tb

−A −A

so1 (t ) (c) (d)

A2Tb

φ1 (t )
− A Tb A Tb
t
0 Tb / 2 Tb 3Tb / 2 2Tb

A2Tb
−
2

a. Sketch the impulse response of the filter matched to s1 (t ) .

Solution:

The impulse response of the filter matched to s1 (t ) is sketched in Figure (b).

b. Sketch the output of the filter matched to the input s1 (t ) .

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 Solution:

The output of the filter matched to s1 (t ) is sketched in Figure (c).

c. Draw the signal constellation. What is the d min for the signal set?

Solution:

The signal constellation is sketched in Figure (d).

d min = 2 A Tb

d. Write an expression for BER in terms of A and No.

Solution:

The BER for antipodal signaling using a matched filter detector is given by

⎛ 2 Eb ⎞
BER = Q ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ N
⎝ o ⎠
1 2 1
In the present case, Eb = A Tb + A2Tb = A2Tb . Substituting
2 2

⎛ 2 A2T ⎞
BER = ⎜ b
⎟
⎜ N ⎟
⎝ o ⎠

10.7 A binary digital communication system uses orthogonal pulses shown in Figure
P10.2. The channel noise is white Gaussian with a power spectral density N o / 2
W/Hz.

a. Draw block diagram of the ML detector. Sketch impulse responses of matched

filters.

Solution:

In the matched-filter implementation of the ML detector, the impulse responses

of matched filters are given by

h1 (t ) = φ1 (Tb − t )
h2 (t ) = φ2 (Tb − t )

where

10

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 s1 (t )
φ1 ( t ) =
A Tb
s2 (t )
φ2 ( t ) =
A Tb

The block diagram of ML detector is shown in Figure (a). The impulse responses
of matched filters are displayed in Figure (b).

T
(a) r1 = ∫ r (t )φ1 (t )dt
0

h1 (t ) = φ1 (Tb − t )
Threshold
t = Tb Comparator
r (t ) = s1 (t ) or s2 (t ) +
ro
ro
+ +
−
n(t )

h2 (t ) = φ2 (Tb − t )
t = Tb
T
r2 = ∫ r (t )φ2 (t )dt
0
(b)
h1 (t ) h2 (t )
1/ Tb 1/ Tb

0 t t
Tb Tb Tb 0 Tb / 2 Tb
4 2
−1/ Tb −1/ Tb

b. Plot the output of the filter matched to s1 (t ) when the input is s1 (t ) . Repeat
when the input is instead s2 (t ) .

Solution:

The outputs of the matched filter with impulse response h1 (t ) to input pulses
s1 (t ) and s2 (t ) are illustrated in Figure.

11

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manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
 h1 (t ) * s1 (t ) / A Tb h1 (t ) * s2 (t ) / A Tb
1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0

-0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4

-0.6 -0.6

-0.8 -0.8

-1 -1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
time (t/Tb) time (t/Tb)

c. Plot the output of the filter matched to s2 (t ) when the input is s2 (t ) . Repeat
when the input is instead s1 (t ) . What do you conclude from (b) and (c)?

Solution:

The outputs of the matched filter with impulse response h2 (t ) to input pulses
s2 (t ) and s1 (t ) are illustrated in Figure.

h2 (t ) * s2 (t ) / A Tb h2 (t ) * s1 (t ) / A Tb
1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0

-0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4

-0.6 -0.6

-0.8 -0.8

-1 -1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
time (t/Tb) time (t/Tb)

We observe that response of the filter matched to one signal pulse (say, s1 (t ) ) is
zero at the sampling instant Tb when the input is other signal pulse (say s2 (t ) ).

12

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 d. Draw the signal constellation. What is the d min for the signal set?

Solution:

φ2 (t )

(
s 2 = 0, Eb ) d min
φ1 (t )
s1 = ( Eb , 0 )
The d min for the signal set is

d min = 2 Eb

Substituting Eb = A2Tb , d min can be expressed as

d min = A 2Tb

e. Write an expression for BER in terms of A and No.

Solution:

Since the waveforms s1 (t ) and s2 (t ) are orthogonal, the BER is given by

⎛ Eb ⎞ ⎛ A2T ⎞
BER = Q ⎜ = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ N ⎟⎟
b
Q
⎜ ⎟
⎝ o ⎠ ⎝ No ⎠

10.8 Consider the signal set displayed in Figure P10.3.

a. Apply the Gram-Schmidt procedure to determine an orthonormal basis for the

signal set.

Solution:

We take s1 (t ) as the first basis function.

T T
A2T
E1 = ∫ s (t )dt = A
2
1
2
∫ dt =
0 T /2
2

13

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 Figure P10.3

s1 (t ) s2 (t )

A A

0 t 0 t
T T T T
2 2

s3 (t ) s4 (t )

A A

0 0 T
t t
T T T
2 2
−A −A

The unit energy function φ1 (t ) is obtained by dividing s1 (t ) by E1 . That is,

⎧ 2 s1 (t )
⎪ , 0≤t ≤T
φ1 (t ) = ⎨ T A
⎪0,
⎩ otherwise

Although, it is obvious that s2 (t ) is orthogonal to s1 (t ) , we will proceed to

compute the function θ 2 (t ) using (10.88).

θ 2 (t ) = s2 (t ) − c21φ1 (t )

where

c21 = ( s2 (t ) • φ1 (t ) ) = ∫ s2 (t )φ1 (t )dt = ∫ 0dt = 0

T T

0 0

This proves that s2 (t ) is orthogonal to s1 (t ) . Therefore,

14

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 θ 2 (t ) = s2 (t )
T T /2
T
Since θ2 = E2 = ∫ s2 (t )dt = A ∫ dt = A
2 2
, the second orthonormal
0 0
2
function is obtained as

⎧ 2 s2 (t )
θ 2 (t )
⎪ , 0≤t ≤T
φ2 (t ) = =⎨ T A
E2 ⎪
⎩0, otherwise

To obtain the next orthonormal function, the function θ 3 (t ) is computed as

θ3 (t ) = s3 (t ) − c31φ1 (t ) − c32φ2 (t )

where
T T
1 2 2 AT T
c31 = ( s3 (t ) • φ1 (t ) ) = ∫ s3 (t )φ1 (t )dt = ∫ A2 dt = =A
0
A T T /2 T 2 2

T T /2
1 2 2 AT T
c32 = ( s3 (t ) • φ2 (t ) ) = ∫ s3 (t )φ2 (t )dt = − ∫ A2 dt = − = −A
0
A T 0
T 2 2

Substituting the values of c31 and c32 , we obtain

T T
θ3 (t ) = s3 (t ) − A φ1 (t ) + A φ2 (t ) = s3 (t ) − s1 (t ) + s2 (t ) = 0
2 2

This implies that s3 (t ) is a linear combination of φ1 (t ) and φ2 (t ) . That is,

T T
s3 (t ) = A φ1 (t ) − A φ2 (t )
2 2

Similarly, it is easy to conclude that s4 (t ) is a linear combination of φ1 (t ) and

φ2 (t ) . That is,

T T
s4 (t ) = − A φ1 (t ) + A φ2 (t )
2 2

Figure (a) displays the orthonormal basis of the signal set in Figure P10.3.

b. Plot the signal constellation corresponding to the signal set.

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 Solution:

The signal constellation for the signal set in Figure P10.3 is displayed in Figure
(b).

(a)
φ1 (t ) φ2 (t )

2/T 2/T

0 t 0 t
T /2 T T /2 T
φ2 (t )

2A T / 2

(b) s4 s2 A T /2

s1 2A T / 2
φ1 (t )
−A T / 2 A T /2

−A T / 2
s3

10.9 Consider the signal set

2 Es
si (t ) = cos ( 2π f c t + ψ i ) , 0 ≤ t ≤ T i = 1,......,8
T

where

⎧ π π 3π 5π 3π 7π ⎫
ψ i ∈ ⎨0, , , ,π , , , ⎬
⎩ 4 2 4 4 2 4 ⎭

a. What is the dimensionality of signal space?

Solution:

Dimensionality of signal space = 2

16

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 b. Determine the basis vectors for the signal set.

Solution:

By choosing the basis functions

2
φ1 (t ) = cos ( 2π f c t )
T
2
φ2 (t ) = sin ( 2π f c t ) ,
T

s i = ( si1 Es , si 2 Es )

si1 = cos(ψ i )
si 2 = sin(ψ i )

c. Draw the constellation diagram of the signal set.

φ2 (t )
s 2 = (0, Es )

s 3 = (− Es / 2, Es / 2) s1 = ( Es / 2, Es / 2)

s 4 = (− Es , 0) φ1 (t )
s 0 = ( Es , 0)

s 5 = (− Es / 2, − Es / 2) s 7 = ( Es / 2, − Es / 2)

s 6 = (0, − Es )

10.10 Consider the 2 basis functions shown in Figure P10.4 (a). Sketch the waveforms
corresponding to the points in the constellation shown in Figures P10.4 (b) and
(c).

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 Figure P10.4

φ1 (t ) φ2 (t )

1/ T 1/ T

0 0 T
t t
T 3T T T
4 4 2
−1/ T −1/ T

(a) φ2 (t )
φ2 (t )
(c)
A • s1 s2 A
33A
A
−
2 φ1 (t ) A s1
A
A −A
s2 • − φ1 (t )
2 A
s3 −A
(b)

−3A s4

Solution:

For constellation (b), the waveforms corresponding to signal points s1 and s 2 are
obtained as

s1 = ( A, A) ⇒ s1 (t ) = s11φ1 (t ) + s12φ2 (t ) = Aφ1 (t ) + Aφ2 (t )

A A
s 2 = (− A / 2, − A / 2) ⇒ s2 (t ) = s21φ1 (t ) + s22φ2 (t ) = − φ1 (t ) − φ2 (t )
2 2

The waveforms are displayed in Figure.

s1 (t ) s2 (t )

2A / T
A/ T
3T / 4 T /4 T
0 t 0 t
T /4 T 3T / 4
−A / T
−2 A / T 18

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 For constellation (c), the waveforms corresponding to signal points s1 , s 2 , s 3
and s 4 are obtained as

s1 = ( A, A) ⇒ s1 (t ) = s11φ1 (t ) + s12φ2 (t ) = Aφ1 (t ) + Aφ2 (t )

s 2 = (− A,3 A) ⇒ s2 (t ) = s21φ1 (t ) + s22φ2 (t ) = − Aφ1 (t ) + 3 Aφ2 (t )
s 3 = (− A, − A) ⇒ s2 (t ) = s31φ1 (t ) + s32φ2 (t ) = − Aφ1 (t ) − Aφ2 (t )
s 4 = ( A, −3 A) ⇒ s4 (t ) = s41φ1 (t ) + s42φ2 (t ) = Aφ1 (t ) − 3 Aφ2 (t )

The waveforms are displayed in Figure.

s1 (t ) s3 (t )

2A / T 2A / T

3T / 4 0 T /4
0
T /4 T 3T / 4 T

−2 A / T −2 A / T

s2 (t ) s4 (t )

4A / T 4A / T
2A / T 2A / T
T T /2
0 t 0 t
T /2 T
−2 A / T −2 A / T
−4 A / T −4 A / T

10.11 Using the basis functions in Figure P10.5(a), sketch the waveforms corresponding
the points of the constellation shown in Figure P10.5(b).

Solution:

The signal waveforms corresponding to the constellation in Figure P10.5(b) are

shown in Figure.

19

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 φ2 (t )

2A s2 s1 s0
s3
2A φ1 (t )

s4 s5 s6 s7

4 2
s 0(t)

s 1(t)
T s0 (t ) 2 T s1 (t ) 1
A A
0 0
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
0 0
s 2(t)

s 3(t)
T s2 (t ) -1 T s3 (t ) -2
A A
-2 -4
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
0 0
T s5 (t )
s 4(t)

s 5(t)

T s4 (t ) -2 -1
A A
-4 -2
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
2 4
1
s 6(t)

s 7(t)

T s6 (t ) T s7 (t ) 2
A 0 A
-1 0
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
time (t/T) time (t/T)

10.12 Consider the signal constellation shown in Figure P10.5(b).

a. Derive the exact average probability of symbol error for the constellation.

Solution:

For the constellation in Figure 10.5(b), d min = 2 A . The probability of symbol

error can be exactly computed by noting that the conditional probability of a
correct decision falls into one of two categories:

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 (i) Four corner points ( s 0 , s 3 , s 4 and s 7 )

P {correct decision s 0 sent} = P { n1 > − d min / 2 ∩ n2 > − d min / 2}

= P { n1 > − d min / 2} P { n2 > − d min / 2}
⎛ ⎛ d ⎞⎞⎛ ⎛ d ⎞⎞
= ⎜ 1 − Q ⎜ min ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ 1 − Q ⎜ min ⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ 2N ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ 2N ⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ o ⎠⎠⎝ ⎝ o ⎠⎠

2
⎛ d ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ d ⎞⎤ ⎛ d ⎞
= 1 − 2Q ⎜ min ⎟ + ⎢Q ⎜ min ⎟ ⎥ ≈ 1 − 2Q ⎜ min ⎟
⎜ 2 N ⎟ ⎢ ⎜ 2 N ⎟⎥ ⎜ 2N ⎟
⎝ o ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ o ⎠⎦ ⎝ o ⎠

⎛ d ⎞
P {error s 0 sent} = 2Q ⎜ min ⎟
⎜ 2N ⎟
⎝ o ⎠

= P {error s 3 sent} = P {error s 4 sent} = P {error s 7 sent}

(ii) Four inner points ( s1 , s 2 , s 5 and s 6 )

P {correct decision s1 sent} = P {− d min / 2 < n1 < d min / 2 ∩ n2 > − d min / 2}

= P {− d min / 2 < n1 < d min / 2} P {n2 > − d min / 2}
⎛ ⎛ d ⎞⎞⎛ ⎛ d ⎞⎞
= ⎜ 1 − 2Q ⎜ min ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ 1 − Q ⎜ min ⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ 2N ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ 2N ⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ o ⎠⎠⎝ ⎝ o ⎠⎠

2
⎛ d ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ d ⎞⎤ ⎛ d ⎞
= 1 − 3Q ⎜ min ⎟ + 2 ⎢Q ⎜ min ⎟ ⎥ ≈ 1 − 3Q ⎜ min ⎟
⎜ 2N ⎟ ⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ 2 N o ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎜ 2N ⎟
⎝ o ⎠ ⎝ o ⎠

⎛ d ⎞
P {error s1 sent} = 3Q ⎜ min ⎟
⎜ 2N ⎟
⎝ o ⎠

= P {error s 2 sent} = P {error s 5 sent} = P {error s 6 sent}

We now obtain the following expression for the average probability of symbol
error

M
4⎛ ⎛ d ⎞⎞ 4 ⎛ ⎛ d ⎞⎞
∑ P {error s sent} = ⎜ 2Q ⎜ min ⎟ ⎟ + ⎜ 3Q ⎜ min ⎟ ⎟
1
Pe =
M
i
8 ⎜⎝ ⎜ 2N ⎟ ⎟ 8 ⎜ ⎜ 2N ⎟ ⎟
i =1 ⎝ o ⎠⎠ ⎝ ⎝ o ⎠⎠

5 ⎛ d min ⎞ 5 ⎛ 2 A2 ⎞
= Q⎜ ⎟ = Q⎜ ⎟
2 ⎜⎝ 2 N o ⎟⎠ 2 ⎜⎝ N o ⎟⎠

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 b. Compute the average probability of symbol error using the nearest neighbor
estimate. Comment.

Solution:

The number of minimum distance pairs for the constellation is M. Substituting K

= M = 8 into (10.156) yields

8 ⎛ d ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞ ⎛ 2 A2 ⎞
Pe ≈ 2 Q ⎜ min ⎟ = 2Q ⎜ min ⎟ = 2Q ⎜ ⎟
8 ⎜⎝ 2 N o ⎟⎠ ⎜ 2N ⎟
⎝ o ⎠
⎜ No
⎝
⎟
⎠

The average probability of symbol error estimate using the nearest neighbor
approximation is very accurate for this constellation.

10.13 Consider the signal constellations shown in Figure P10.6.

a. Determine the average energy of each signal constellation.

Solution:

The average energy of a signal constellation Es is

M
1
Es =
M
∑s
i =1
i
2

Constellation (a)

1
Es = [ 2 Eb + 2Eb + 2Eb + 2 Eb ] = 2 Eb
4

Constellation (b)

1
Es = [0 + 4 Eb + 4 Eb + 8Eb ] = 4 Eb
4

Constellation (c)

1
Es = [ 2 Eb + 2Eb + 2Eb + 2 Eb ] = 2 Eb
4

b. Sketch decision regions in each case.

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 Solution:

φ2(t) φ2(t)
(0, 2 Eb ) (2 Eb , 2 Eb )
(− Eb , Eb ) ( Eb , Eb ) s2 s1
s2 s1
D2 D1
D2 D1
φ1(t) D3 D4
D3 D4 s3
s4 φ1(t)
(0, 0)
s3 s4 (2 Eb , 0)
(− Eb , − Eb ) ( Eb , − Eb )

φ2(t) (b)
(a)
D2
s2 (0, 2 Eb )

D3 s3 D1
(− 2 Eb , 0) ( 2 Eb , 0)

s4
(0, − 2 Eb )
D4

(c)

c. Write the average probability of symbol error for each constellation using the
nearest neighbor bound.

Solution:

For each constellation, the number of minimum distance pairs is 4. Also

d min = 2 Eb in every case. Substituting K = 4 into (10.156) yields

4 ⎛ d ⎞ ⎛ 2 Eb ⎞ ⎛ 2 Eb ⎞
Pe ≈ 2 Q ⎜ min ⎟ = 2Q ⎜ ⎟ = 2Q ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
4 ⎜⎝ 2 N o ⎟⎠ ⎜ 2N
⎝ o
⎟
⎠ ⎝ No ⎠

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 d. From this example, what conclusions can you make about the constellation
rotation and translation on the error performance of the signal set.

Solution:

Although average energy of the signal set in (b) is twice that in (a) and (c),
d min remains the same. Consequently, twice the energy is required in (c) for
the same error performance. Since the translation and rotation of a signal
constellation does not change distances between signal pairs, the average
probability of symbol error remains the same. The signal energy efficient
constellations, however, are centerd about the centroid (origin in the present
example) of the signal set.

10.14 Consider the 8-PAM signal with constellation in Figure P10.7.

a. Draw the block diagram of the correlation detector.

Solution:

r (t ) = s (t ) + n (t )
ro Bit sequence
∫
T 3-bit
× ADC
0
t =T

φ1 (t )

ADC: Mid-rise Analog-to Digital converter

b. Sketch the transfer characteristic of the threshold comparator.

Solution:

The transfer characteristic of the threshold comparator is displayed in Figure.

c. Determine the estimated symbol sequence and corresponding bit sequence for
the correlator output samples {+0.12, −0.201, +0.71, −1.55, −0.6,1.25} .

Solution:

The estimated symbol sequence is {+0.25, −0.25, +0.75, −1.75, −0.75,1.25} .

The corresponding bit sequence is {000,100, 001,110,101, 011} .

24

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 y[n]
010
1.75

011
1.25

001
0.75

000
0.25
ro[n]
−2.0 −1.5 −1.0 −0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
−0.25
100

−0.75
101

−1.25
111

−1.75
110

10.15 Consider the 8-point signal constellation shown in Figure P10.8.

a. Determine the symbol rate if the desired bit rate is 45 Mbps.

Solution:

Since each symbol conveys 3 bits of information, the resultant symbol rate is

45 ×106
D= = 15 × 106 symbols/sec
3

b. Calculate the average energy of the signal set.

Solution:

Es = ⎡⎣ 4 × ( 2 A2 ) + 4 × ( 9 A2 ) ⎤⎦ =
1 44 2 11 2
A = A
8 8 2

25

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 c. What is the d min for the signal set?

Solution:
8 Es
d min = 2 A =
11

d. Use the nearest neighbor bound to estimate the probability of bit error. Can you
improve the estimate by including additional terms?

Solution:
2 K ⎛ d min ⎞
Pe ≈ Q⎜ ⎟
M ⎜⎝ 2 N o ⎟⎠

Here K = 4, M =8. Therefore,

2× 4 ⎛ 8 Es ⎞ ⎛ 4 Es ⎞
Pe ≈ Q ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = Q ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
8 ⎝ 11× 2 N o ⎠ ⎝ 11N o ⎠

Pe 1 ⎛ 4 Es ⎞ 1 ⎛ 4 × 3Eb ⎞
Probability of bit error = ≈ Q⎜ ⎟⎟ = Q ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
k 3 ⎜⎝ 11N o ⎠ 3 ⎝ 11N o ⎠

If we include 8 signal pairs at distance 5, we get a better estimate

1 ⎛ 4 × 3Eb ⎞ 2 ⎛ 5 × 3Eb ⎞
Probability of bit error ≈ Q ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + Q ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
3 ⎝ 11N o ⎠ 3 ⎝ 11N o ⎠

10.16 Consider the 8-point signal constellation shown in Figure P10.9.

a. Assign the bits to each point in the signal constellation using Gray coding.

Solution:

See Figure

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 φ2 (t )

D5 D4
111 101
•
•
3A
D1 D0
011 001
A • •
φ1 (t )
•
•
−A
010 000
D2 D3
−3A
• •
110 100
D6 D7
−3A −A A 3A

b. Calculate the average energy of the signal set.

Solution:

Es = ⎡⎣ 4 × ( 2 A2 ) + 4 × (18 A2 ) ⎤⎦ = 10 A2
1
8

c. Sketch ML decision regions Di for the signal set.

Solution:

See Figure

d. Use the nearest neighbor bound to estimate the probability of bit error.

Solution:

The number of minimum distance pairs for the constellation is 4. Substituting K =

4 into (10.156) and applying (10.163) yields

2 × 4 ⎛ d min ⎞ 1 ⎛ 2 A ⎞ 1 ⎛ 2 A2 ⎞
BER ≈ Q⎜ ⎟ = Q⎜ ⎟ = Q⎜ ⎟
3 × 8 ⎜⎝ 2 N o ⎟⎠ 3 ⎜⎝ 2 N o ⎟⎠ 3 ⎜⎝ N o ⎟
⎠

27

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Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 "No," I said; "here is the difference," at the same time giving
him a small sum of money. "But now go and inquire in the town for
a man who wants a situation, as I want a servant immediately."

Just then a sergeant entered the room. He brought word from

the Caimacan that he was waiting for me, and that the battalion
would leave Tokat in about half an hour.

I at once rode to the barracks. They consisted of two old Khans,

which surrounded a courtyard, the Khans being used as barracks
when there were troops in Tokat, and at other times of the year as
lodgings for wayfarers. The streets leading to the Khans were lined
with women, muffled up in long white sheets, and weeping
piteously. The battalion was drawn up in two ranks inside the
courtyard. The men were standing at ease, and engaged in talking
to their numerous friends and relatives. Immense enthusiasm
prevailed amidst the bystanders. Numbers of volunteers were
offering their services.

"Look at these men, sir," observed Radford, who was riding

behind me; "they do not look as if they liked going as soldiers: bless
my heart alive, if they ain't a-crying!"

I glanced in the direction he was pointing, and saw thirty or forty

men with most woe-begone faces, and some of them in tears.

"Why are you crying?" I said to one of their party. "Are you
afraid of being killed?"

"No, Effendi, we want to go with our brothers in the battalion

and to fight by their side; but the major will not take us, he says
that his battalion is complete. Do ask him to let us accompany him!
Our hearts are full of sorrow at being left behind."

A captain in the regiment, a short, podgy-looking man, with very

fat cheeks, now came to them, and tried to console the volunteers
by saying that their turn would come soon, and that they should go
with the next battalion.

It was a curious spectacle: the soldiers dressed in a neat dark

blue serge uniform, and with their feet in sandals, surrounded by
little knots of relatives clad in every kind of attire that can well be
imagined; fathers embracing sons, brothers rubbing cheeks with
brothers, and the sergeant and corporals vainly endeavouring to get
their men into some sort of order; the fat captain in the background
engaged in trying to console the rejected volunteers; and the
younger portion of the crowd looking inquisitively at the new Martini-
Peabody rifles which had only arrived from Samsoun the previous
evening. Some of the soldiery were showing how quick their rifles
could be loaded and fired. The rapidity of the system created great
astonishment amidst the crowd.

"The giaours come from the country where these guns are
made," said a bystander, pointing to Radford and myself.

"The giaours have more brain than we have," said another.

"If they help us, we shall eat the Russians!" exclaimed a third.
We became the object of still more curiosity when a sergeant,
coming to me, said that the Caimacan was in the major's room,
drinking coffee, and hoped that I would join him there.

"He is going to drink coffee with the Governor—he is a great

man!" said one of the bystanders. Some of the volunteers, rushing
up, entreated me to intercede with the Caimacan, and perhaps he
could induce the major of the battalion to take them with him to the
war.

The major, and several other officers were squatted on a carpet

in a small and rather dirty room overlooking the courtyard. The
Caimacan was seated on a chair, a dervish sat by his side. The latter
individual was a portly-looking man, wrapped up in a roll of brown
cloth, and with a gigantic sugar-loaf hat on his head. The hat was
made of grey cloth, and would have made the fortune of the leader
of a nigger band. Several more officers now came into the room,
amongst others the fat captain. They each in turn bent before the
dervish, who placed his hands above their heads, and pronounced
some sort of a blessing.

A Circassian entered the building. He presently informed us that

five thousand of his nation, who resided in the neighbourhood of
Tokat, had expressed a wish to go to the seat of war, and to bring
with them their own horses and arms.

By this time the sergeants had succeeded in arranging their men

in the ranks, and the major going downstairs, followed by the
Imaum or chaplain of the regiment, the latter addressed the
battalion. The Imaum was attired in a lieutenant's uniform, but with
a green turban round the fez, as a distinctive mark of his profession.

The Chaplain's discourse was not a long one. It was listened to

with great attention by the populace. When he had finished the
ranks were again broken by a crowd of eager, excited Mussulmans,
who rushed up to embrace their friends.

As I was descending the steps, my attention was called to a man

who was seated on the stair. He was sobbing like a child; at the
same time striking his chest with the palms of his hands.

"What is the matter?" I inquired.

On his looking up, I recognized the muleteer whom I had hired

to bring my baggage from Sileh Zela to Tokat. The man on seeing
me sprang to his feet, then throwing himself on the ground, he
began to embrace my legs, at the same time kissing my boots.
 It appeared that several baggage animals were required for the
battalion which was about to march. The Zaptiehs of Tokat had
pressed the muleteer into their service, and had taken his mules.

"Do speak for me, Effendi!" he said. "They will take me to Kars. I
shall be a ruined man. And my wife expects me home—she is in a
delicate state of health; I shall shortly be a father."

"It is useless," said the Caimacan, who overheard his prayers.

"We must have baggage animals," he continued; "you will not be
taken to Kars, only to Samsoun; you will be paid for the hire of your
animals. Dry your eyes, and do not block up the steps."

"It is a great pity, and I am very sorry for these poor fellows,"
observed the Caimacan, turning to me; "but what can we do? It is
war time, or very soon will be so: some of us must suffer."

"Listen to those poor women there," he continued, as we rode

through the gate, preceded by the brass band of the regiment
playing a melancholy march. A deep wail could be heard even above
the noise of the instruments. The wives, mothers, and other female
relatives of the soldiers, had not been permitted to enter the
barracks; but from an early hour they had taken up a position along
the streets. The bitter cry, which was joined in by hundreds of
voices, announced to the people in the very outskirts of the town
that the battalion was on the march.

Presently the band ceased playing; and the old major, his long
white beard streaming in the wind, began singing the words: "God is
great. There is but one God, the God, and there is but one Prophet,
the Prophet, and he is the Prophet of God."

The soldiers took up the strain, ten thousand bystanders joined

in the verse—it even silenced the women's wail—and resounded
along the banks of the river. Here taken up by some people on the
ruined citadel, the words were re-echoed back to us; there wafted
by the breeze to an adjacent hamlet, the peasantry swelled the
chorus. The standard of the battalion, with the crescent embroidered
on a green border, was raised high in the air, and several of the
crowd, rushing up to the major, implored him to take them in his
ranks.

It was a striking scene—these weeping women in their shroud-

like dresses; the many-coloured garments of the men; the excited
soldiery—the still more excited major; and the immense religious
enthusiasm.

Snow-capped mountains barred the way before us, and the river,
its banks set fast with ice and hoar-frost, glittered in the distance,
and reflected the rays of a midday sun.

Large stacks of wood had been piled up near the stream. The
timber had been cut in the forests above the town, and been floated
down the river to Tokat. It is chiefly used for smelting copper, the
Government having some smelting works in the neighbourhood.
According to my informant, they were established thirty years ago by
a German; after his decease they had been bought by the Turkish
authorities.

The Caimacan thought that he had accompanied the battalion

far enough. Drawing a little on one side, we let the soldiers pass us.
The standard-bearer waved his flag, the old major saluted by
lowering the point of his sword as he rode past, and with the words,
"Go in safety, God be with you. We shall meet in Erzeroum," we
parted.
 CHAPTER XXIV.
Osman Bey—A Circassian feud—Will there be a rising in the Caucasus?—If England
were to help us—A wonderful servant—Mohammed—His Captain—An Armenian
doctor—Business is flat—The Christian population to be armed—Visitors asking
favours—Your reward will be in heaven—A subscription—Promotion through
favouritism—A sad story—A cruel father—A servant arrested for debt—Failure of
justice.

Soon afterwards I met Osman Bey, my acquaintance of the

previous day. He was on the point of leaving for a Circassian hamlet
in the neighbourhood. It appeared that a feud had arisen between
the people of this village and another one in its vicinity; the Bey was
going there to calm, if possible, the angry feelings of the inhabitants.

He remarked that in the event of war breaking out between

Turkey and Russia he should go to the Caucasus.

"Will there be a great rising in that country?" I inquired.

"It is very doubtful," was the answer; "our people have risen
several times;[17] no foreign power has assisted us, and the result is
that we have been decimated by our enemy. My countrymen are
afraid of doing anything, unless they feel certain that they will be
aided in their attempt. If England were to help us," he continued,
"and could only capture one Russian port on the Black Sea, the
Circassians would have confidence, and there would be a rising
throughout the length and breadth of our land."

On returning to my house I found the Zaptieh who had been

defrauded by my late servant. He was awaiting me with a candidate
for Osman's place.

"Effendi, I have brought you a wonderful fellow," said the

gendarme; "if you send him with a message, he will fly; he will
guard your purse more carefully than his own."

It appeared that the wonderful man's name was Mohammed; he

was a redif soldier. His battalion would march in the course of a
week or so to Erzeroum. To avoid going with the troops he proposed
that he should engage himself as my servant until we reached that
town, and then he could join his battalion.

"But will your commanding officer give you leave to accompany

me?" I inquired.

"If the Effendi asks him," interrupted the Zaptieh.

Mohammed was apparently not above twenty-five years of age.

He had a pleasant, frank expression, and I determined to engage
him, that is, if I could obtain the sanction of his captain.

I now went to see this officer. He at once agreed to the

proposal; that is, if I would pledge myself to give up Mohammed at
Erzeroum.

"How can I pledge myself?" I remarked, "he may run away on

the road."

"That is true," said the officer; "but he is a straightforward fellow

—he will not do so. If I had the power, I would let you take him as a
servant for all the time that you remain in the country; but I have no
authority to do this, I am merely a captain."
 The matter was settled. Returning to my house, I informed the
man of his officer's consent.

Mohammed was to have the same wages as Osman, and as he

had a horse of his own, which he wished to take to Erzeroum, I was
to pay for the forage of the animal, and could make use of him for
the baggage. This would be very useful; hitherto I had been obliged
to hire a horse, owing to my loss of Obadiah. Up to this time I had
been travelling on the postal track. It was possible to find horses.
After leaving Sivas, the next town I should reach, there would be no
more postal-stations; I should then have to trust to my being able to
hire animals from the peasantry, or be obliged to purchase another
horse.

"I have a wife," said Mohammed; "will my lord give me a little

money?"

"How much do you want?"

"Two liras."

"I wonder if he will bolt with the money, like the Tartar I
engaged last winter in Orenburg." This idea at once occurred to my
mind. On second thoughts, I remembered that he was well known to
the Zaptieh, and to many of the other inhabitants of Tokat; so I
acceded to his request.

An Armenian doctor called to see me. He had been educated in

the States, and spoke English with a most unmistakable Yankee
drawl.

"How is business here?" I inquired.

"Very flat," said the medical gentleman; "the people do not put
much faith in doctors, that is, until they are really ill, and then we
have a busy time of it. They pill themselves," he continued, "and go
in for herbs and old women's remedies; they get them cheap, and
grudge the money which they must pay to a regular practitioner."

"You do not look very well," said the doctor.

"Thank you, there is not much the matter," I replied. The fact
was that I had a splitting headache, owing to the charcoal pan or
mungo which warmed the apartment. The gas from the charcoal
being lighter than the air, fills the upper part of the room. The Turks
and Armenians generally squat on the floor. They do not feel the
effects of the fumes so much as a person who is seated on the
divan.

Another Armenian now paid me a visit. He was the telegraph

inspector in Tokat, and he informed us that orders had just been
sent from Constantinople to buy up all the available horses in this
neighbourhood.

"Things look warlike," he continued, "and the doctor," pointing to

his compatriot, "will have plenty of practice before long. The whole
Christian population is to be armed. It is clear that the Government
has not much faith in the Conference, and is doing its best to
prepare for war."

The Armenians in Tokat complained of the slack way in which

justice was administered throughout that district. According to the
doctor, if a man committed a crime, and could get away for a year or
two and then return to his home, he would not be pursued by the
authorities; that is, unless the aggrieved parties made a formal
complaint.

"Yes," said another visitor, "three months ago fifty-four

malefactors escaped from the prison. Forty of them shortly
afterwards surrendered; the rest made their way to the mountains.
Their ringleader, who is a murderer, has been recently seen in Tokat:
no one has cared to arrest him."

Four young Turks entered the room; the eldest could not have
been more than three-and-twenty.

"What do you want?" I inquired.

"We do not wish to go to the war," replied one of them, who

took upon himself to be spokesman for the party.

"Why not?"

"Because we are married men and have children."

"I cannot help you."

"Yes, Effendi, you can; you might speak to the Caimacan, and he
could free us from military service."

"His duty is to send you to the front," observed the doctor.

"Yes, but he evidently likes the Frank, for we saw them riding
together, and if the Effendi would only ask him, he could not be so
inhospitable as to decline."

I was a little annoyed at this remark, and observed,—

"I certainly shall not ask for anything of the kind. Other people
who have wives and children are obliged to go, then why not you?"

"But they did not love their wives so much as we love ours,"
persisted the man.

The Caimacan now called. Upon his arrival the four visitors, after
grovelling almost in the dust before him, took their departure.

"What did they want?" said the Governor.

 I told him.

"It is very unpatriotic of them," he observed. "The cunning little

dogs, to ask you to intercede on their behalf! But they shall all go
with the next battalion!"

I was evidently destined to have a succession of visitors on that

afternoon, for no sooner had the Caimacan gone than another
official arrived. He at once commenced a conversation by saying that
he had been employed in collecting the redif soldiery from the
different villages in the neighbourhood, and had also started a
subscription amongst the wealthier inhabitants to provide the men
with warm shirts.

"You have acted very kindly, and doubtless with the best
motives," I remarked. "Your reward will be in heaven."

"Yes," said the man, who did not seem quite to relish the idea of
his reward being so indefinitely postponed; "but the Effendi is going
to Sivas?"

"Yes."

"He will see the Pacha there."

"Very likely."

"Then will he tell the Pacha of my great merits, and ask him to
give me some higher employment?"

"If it pleases Allah, you will receive some higher post," I piously
observed. "Our destinies are in his hand."

"Yes," said the man, "so they are. But for all that, I wish that
you would speak to the Pacha for me."
 From the two examples I have here cited, it will readily be seen
that a system of promotion through favouritism is very deeply rooted
amidst the Turks. I had been seen riding with the Caimacan. It was
thought that I might see the Pacha at Sivas—this was quite sufficient
to induce some of the inhabitants of Tokat to believe that any
request I might make to the Pacha or Caimacan would necessarily
be granted.

"It was fortunate," here remarked the engineer, "that you told
Osman to give the baksheesh to a Corporal, and that a Turkish
servant heard you give the order. If the fellow had been a Christian,
the servant would never have taken the trouble to mention it to him.
But the fact of the Corporal being a co-religionist was too much for
the servant. It has enabled you to detect the fraud."

"This is one of the worst features of the country," he continued.

"The Turks will not do anything to aid a Christian at the expense of a
Mohammedan, even if the Mohammedan is most clearly in the
wrong. And it is much the same with the Christians in respect to
their co-religionists. The result is that the Armenians and Turks do
not pull well together. The law, too, is faulty, and requires
amendment."

"Let me give you an example," continued Mr. Gasparini, "and

one which has come immediately under my notice, for it affected my
own servant. It sounds like a romance, but, alas! is too true! My
servant's name is Karatel Mermenk Ovooloo. He is an Armenian; his
mother died when he was a child; his father remarried, but behaved
very badly to his second wife, continually ill-treating her, and making
his son bring another woman to the house. The lad was very fond of
his stepmother, who was at that time seriously ill; at last he refused
to bring his father's paramour to their home. The father beat him
severely and apprenticed the lad to his own trade, that of a
coppersmith. The mother soon afterwards died, with an anathema
on her lips at her husband's paramour. The latter, strange to say,
died herself three weeks afterwards. In the meantime, the father
gave the boy three piastres a week for his clothes. The lad could not
clothe himself for that sum, he left his home and went into service.
The parent succeeded in having the boy turned away from several
situations, but at last I took him. Now, only the other day, the father
went to the Cadi, and swore that his son was in a coppersmith's
business with himself, and in consequence must pay half the tax on
his trade. There is no truth whatever in the statement, but the
father's word has been taken, and my servant arrested, and kept in
prison for three days. The sum is only twenty-six piastres, I would
gladly pay it myself, but I have no money; the government will not
give me my salary; so here we are at a dead-lock."
 CHAPTER XXV.
Mohammed's horse—The Effendi's barley—The road from Tokat to Sivas—A very
pretty girl—Tchiflik—Complaints made against the Circassians—Highly cultivated
soil—The Tchamlay Bel mountain—A Turk killed—A wonderful gun—Yenihan—
The Yeldez Ermak—The Kizil Ermak—Sivas—A ruined citadel—The importance of
Sivas from a military point of view—My entry into Sivas—The guard—An Italian
engineer—Three American missionaries—A house pillaged.

The following morning, Mohammed arrived at an early hour,

bringing with him his horse, a wretched brute to look at; he had not
a particle of flesh on his bones, and was half blind with one eye.

"This is my horse, Effendi," said Mohammed proudly; "is he not

a magnificent animal? My having this horse will save the Effendi the
expense of hiring or buying another one."

"I hope that I shall get a baksheesh at Erzeroum," he added.

"Of course," I said; "that is, if the brute reaches Erzeroum. But it
strikes me that you have not been giving him anything to eat lately!"

"No, Effendi, I was afraid that if he looked too well he would

have been taken for the use of the troops; but no one will even
glance at him as he is. He has a wonderful appetite, and will make
up for lost time; no one will recognize him, after he has eaten the
Effendi's barley for a day or two; he will soon be fat and strong."
 The road from Tokat to Sivas is a good one for the first few
hours. My friend the engineer's work had been very fairly done; our
horses were able to get over the ground at from five to six miles an
hour. The track led through a succession of hills and valleys. In some
places the engineer had been obliged to cut the road for several
hundred yards in the solid rock.

Presently we passed a small Circassian village. Several good-

looking women, coming to the road-side, offered chickens and geese
for sale. One of the Circassians was a very pretty girl, and would
have carried off the palm amidst many European belles. Her face
was not veiled. There was a great deal of expression in her large,
dark eyes. They flashed excitedly as she sought to induce me to buy
her wares.

"I am tired of chicken," I said; "I should like a little meat."

"There is no meat here," replied the girl. "We ourselves live upon
bread and eggs: buy some eggs."

And running back to a house, she brought out about fifty eggs;
the price being eightpence of our money.

Now we came to Tchiflik, an Armenian village. Here there were

thirty houses; and as six hours had sped by since we left Tokat, I
determined to halt for the night, the more particularly as
Mohammed's horse showed unmistakable signs of fatigue.

The Armenian in whose house I stopped, complained of his

Circassian neighbours. According to him, they had hazy ideas as to
the difference between meum and tuum. Several cows belonging to
the villagers had recently disappeared. It was strongly suspected
that some Circassians were implicated in the robbery.

The country in the neighbourhood was very highly cultivated.

The farmers' granaries were full of corn. Hundreds of cows and
cattle could be seen grazing along the side of the road.

We arrived at the Tchamlay Bel mountain. As we were ascending

a narrow pass which overhung a steep precipice, the guide, a
Zaptieh, observed that only five days previous a Turk had been killed
on this very spot. It appeared that there was a band of brigands in
the neighbourhood. Five of them had attacked a party of four
Turkish merchants, who were returning from Sivas with, as it was
believed, a considerable amount of gold on their persons. Three of
the Turks ran away, leaving their companion, who showed fight, but
was shot down; the brigands had taken away from him thirty-five
liras, besides two horses. An hour later, when the news was brought
to a village, several of the inhabitants turned out on horseback to
pursue the robbers: it was too late, they had made their escape and
carried off the booty.

"Do not be alarmed," said the guide as he concluded his story. "I
am with you; the brigands will be afraid. Look here!" he carefully
unstrapped a long, single-barrelled flint gun from his saddle-bow.
The barrel was tied on to the stock by a piece of string.

"It is a wonderful gun," said the guide. "It belonged to my

grandfather, I once shot a deer with it."

"Was the deer far off?" I inquired.

"Very far," was the reply. "So far," pointing to a rock about 1000
yards from us. It was clear that however well the guide might shoot
with his gun, he was equally good with the long-bow. I began to be
a little doubtful about the story he had just told us of the brigands.

We rested for a while at Yenihan, a large village with 200

houses; the population is composed half of Armenians and half of
Turks. The Caimacan had gone to the mountains in search of some
redif soldiery. He had experienced considerable difficulty in inducing
these men to leave their homes, and join the army in the field.

There was nothing particular to see at Yenihan. Sivas was only

nine hours distant: I determined to make a long march on the
following day, and give our horses a rest in that city. The track was
good. Ox-carts—the chief means of transporting baggage in this part
of Anatolia—have no difficulty in travelling along the road to the
Yeldez Ermak, a rapid stream which is about seventy yards wide. It
is crossed by a good stone bridge on arches. The river, though
fordable in the winter, would be impassable in the early spring if it
were not for the bridge. It is a tributary of the Kizil Ermak, and
meets that stream about twelve miles S.E. of Sivas. The district is
hilly, but is highly cultivated. In about four hours we reached the
Kizil Ermak, a broad, deep river. It is crossed by a stone bridge. A
road on the opposite bank leads to Divriki.

We did not cross the bridge, but continued on to Sivas, which lay
before us, with a background of rising slopes. A citadel, in a ruined
state, frowned down upon us from the centre of the city.

Sivas, the capital of Armenia Minor, is situated at the head of the

valley of the Halys of the ancients. It is the most important military
position in this part of Turkey. It commands the sole route which
descends with the waters upon the plateau of Asia Minor. Sivas is the
key to the Peninsula on the Asiatic side; the Turks ought to fortify
this place, particularly when they are threatened in Asia Minor by the
Russians. Should the latter succeed in forcing the first line of
defence, consisting of Kars, Ardahan, and Bayazid, and afterwards
take possession of Erzeroum, there will be no other fortified town
between themselves and Scutari.

The governor had sent an officer with some Zaptiehs as an

escort for our party. As we were entering the principal street a
servant approached us with a fine Arab horse, and said that the
Pacha hoped I would honour him by riding his favourite animal to
the quarters prepared for my accommodation. It appeared that the
Bey in Angora had telegraphed to the governor of Sivas about me,
hence the preparations which had been made.

I dismounted from my own quadruped, and mounted the

Pacha's horse. I now found that the stirrup-leathers, even when let
out to the last hole, were much too short, I was sitting with my
knees nearly up to my chin.

The whole population of Sivas had turned out to welcome me to

their city. I should have liked to have made my entry in as dignified
a manner as possible. Dignity soon became out of the question. The
Arab horse, unaccustomed to sixteen stone on his back, began to
kick. To avoid ignominiously coming off, I was compelled to take my
feet out of the stirrups, and ride without these appendages to the
saddle.

Luckily the rooms prepared for us were not far distant. On

arriving in a small square, the officers and Zaptiehs halted before a
small, but clean-looking house, which faced the Pacha's residence.
On the other sides of the square were the prison and the barracks.
The guard turned out from the last-named building, and presented
arms as we dismounted. The officer of the escort, taking my hand,
led me up a staircase to the apartment set aside for my
accommodation.

Soon after our arrival I was waited upon by an Italian engineer,

who was employed at Sivas by the government. He was the only
European in the city, which contains 7000 houses; however, there
were three American missionaries who had been settled in Sivas for
several years past with the object of making proselytes.
 The Italian was accompanied by an Armenian who spoke French.
The latter gentleman was very indignant with the Pacha, who had
shut up the shops belonging to the Christians during the previous
week. It appeared that some of the redif soldiers had pillaged a
house in the market-place. Several hundred more redifs were
expected to arrive at Sivas; there were hardly any regular troops to
keep order. The governor had taken the precaution of closing all the
shops belonging to Armenians during the stay of the redifs in the
town. This was a precautionary measure. It had given great
umbrage to the Christians. My visitor loudly denounced the
proceeding.

"Are people ever tortured here?" I inquired.

"No," said the engineer; "the law is, or rather the judges are,
much too merciful. There has been only one execution during the
last three years. The culprit was a soldier; his first wife had been
seduced by a neighbour. He put her away and took another, but at
the same time said to his neighbour, 'If you seduce this woman I will
kill you!' The threat had no effect. The soldier's second wife was
treated as the former one had been: he revenged himself by killing
the adulterer; for this offence he was hanged."

"Are people ever impaled here?" I inquired, still having the two
English priests who wrote some letters to the Times about what they
said they had seen when travelling on the Danube, in my mind's eye.

The Armenian smiled.

"No, not so bad as that. I believe a robber was impaled eighteen

years ago; at all events, there is some tradition to that effect."

Shortly afterwards my visitors left the room.

 CHAPTER XXVI.
The prison in Sivas—Christian prisoners—The gaoler—Kurds and Circassians—A
few Armenians—False statement made to me by Christians—The old murderer—
The firman for his execution—Kept in suspense—Our Governor dislikes shedding
blood—Issek Pacha—He may die—His residence—The law in Turkey about
murder—Mercenary dealings—Lax justice.

The following day I walked across the square to the prison. I

had not said anything to the authorities in Sivas about my intended
visit to this establishment. I wished to see it under its everyday
aspect, and at the same time to find out if there were so many
Christians prisoners as the Armenians in Yuzgat would have had me
believe.

I found the gaoler seated in the doorway, he was smoking a long

pipe.

"Can I see the prison?" I asked.

"Certainly, Effendi."

Going before me, he led the way to a lofty but narrow room.
Here there were twenty-seven prisoners, clothed in rags and tatters;
each man had his wrist fastened to his instep by a light iron chain.
No gaoler slept in this room with the prisoners. They would not have
had any difficulty in freeing themselves from their manacles had
they tried to do so.
 "What do you give them to eat?" I inquired.

"A loaf of bread (about 2 lbs. weight) every day, and some
water," was the reply. "However, many of them have friends in the
town, and they are supplied with provisions from outside."

"What are the prisoners mostly here for?" I asked.

"For robbery and murder. We have a great many Kurds and

Circassians for horse and cattle stealing. Then there are a few
Armenians, the latter chiefly for crime connected with money
matters."

"How many prisoners are there altogether?" I remarked.

"One hundred and two."

"And how many Christians?"

"Six; all the rest belong to Islam."

As the population of Sivas is fairly divided between the two

sects, it was very flattering for the Armenians that there should be
so few of their number amongst the prisoners. But, after what I had
been told at Yuzgat, my belief in the truthfulness of their community
was very much shaken.

In another part of the gaol there were several prisoners without

chains. They were walking about in an enclosed courtyard. One of
them, an old man who was very much bowed down by years,
appealed to us. Taking my hand he touched it with his forehead, and
then besought me to speak to the Pacha for him.

"What is he here for?" I inquired.

"For murder," was the reply; "and a very cold-blooded murder

too."
 "He is a Circassian," continued the gaoler, "and the firman for his
execution arrived at Sivas two years ago."

"Yes," said the old man, in a whining voice, "two years ago! and
I have been kept in suspense ever since. It is an awful thing, Effendi
—I never know from one hour to another that it may not be my
last!"

"Why was he not executed?" I inquired of the official.

"Our Governor dislikes shedding blood," said the gaoler," and he

has put the firman away in a drawer."

"Yes," interrupted the aged murderer; "Issek Pacha is a kind

man, he will not put me to death; but he is very old—he may die!
The Governor who will succeed him might find the firman, and order
me to be hanged!"

"Well, what do you want me to do?" I asked.

"Only, Effendi, to beseech the Pacha to tear up the firman!" cried

the old man in imploring tones. "Let me end my years in the prison,
for here every one is kind to me; and let me not be strangled at the
end of a rope on the scaffold!"

"Well, I will speak to Issek Pacha," I said; and with difficulty

escaping from the murderer, who threw himself on all fours and
frantically embraced my legs, I walked to the governor's residence.

He was seated on a sofa at one end of a large hall, and

surrounded by attendants with documents awaiting his signature. He
at once rose, and motioned to me to sit down by his side. After the
customary salutations, I mentioned to him that I had just visited the
prison and had seen the old murderer.

"Ah! you have seen him," said the Pacha gravely, at the same
time slowly stroking his stomach. "He is in a great state of mind, I
believe, lest I should die before he does, and my successor order the
sentence to be put into execution. But he has nothing to fear; I have
the firman safe in my drawer, and am trying to arrange the matter
with the relatives of the murdered man."

It appears that there is a curious law in Turkey, to the effect that

if a man has committed a murder, and the order for his execution
has come from Constantinople, the Pacha whose duty it is to have
the sentence carried out need not do so, provided that the relations
of the murdered person request that the assassin's life may be
spared.

This frequently gives rise to mercenary dealings between the

assassin and the relatives, for the latter hold his life in their hands. If
the murderer is rich, he will often have to give up all his property;
and then if the relations pardon him, the law enacts that he must
spend fifteen years in gaol. The manner of carrying out this part of
the sentence is extremely lax. Should the friends of the prisoner be
able to scrape together enough money to satisfy the officials
connected with the prison, the murderer will be allowed to escape
and remain at large in his native town.

Later in the day two Armenian gentlemen called upon me.

Presently one of them remarked that Issek Pacha was immensely
rich, and that many tales were in circulation about him.

"Yes," said his companion, "there is a story to the effect that one
day the Grand Vizier was walking by the side of the Bosphorus with
the late Sultan Abdul Aziz. A beautiful yacht, the property of Issek
Pacha, happened to be anchored close to the royal palace. 'What a
magnificent vessel!' said the Sultan. 'To whom does it belong?' The
Grand Vizier," continued the Armenian, "did not much like the
Governor of Sivas, and replied, 'It was the property of Issek Pacha,
but he has sent it here to be placed at your majesty's disposal.'
'Write and say that I accept it with pleasure,' said the Sultan. The
first notification which Issek Pacha had of this transaction was the
receipt of an official letter from Constantinople enclosing the Sultan's
thanks for the present.

"A subscription had been recently started in the vilayet or

province of Sivas, with the object of collecting funds to enable the
Government to continue the war. Ten thousand liras were collected.
The Pacha sent the money to the Grand Vizier without exactly
stating the sources from which it was derived. The minister at once
ordered the receipt of this sum, as coming from Issek Pacha, to be
acknowledged in the public journals; he also desired a secretary to
write an official letter to the governor to thank him for his large
donation, and say in the postscript that when the rest of the people
in the province of Sivas had sent in their subscriptions, he was to
forward them immediately to Constantinople. Our Pacha did not like
this letter," continued my informant. "However, what could he do? he
is an enormously rich man, and, though it went very much against
the grain, he sent a fresh 10,000 liras to the Porte."

It was clear that the Armenians did not love their Pacha. From
what I subsequently heard, their dislike to him originates in the fact
that he is not amenable to bribes. That he is not a miser can be
easily shown. Misers are not in the habit of expending large sums of
money in the construction of public buildings. Issek Pacha at the
time of my stay in Sivas was having a large mosque built in the town
of Erzingan, at his own expense. It was said that this building would
cost him 40,000 Turkish liras.

Three American missionaries called; they had been settled for

several years in Anatolia, and had succeeded in making some
converts amidst the Armenians, but they had not in any one instance
induced a Mohammedan to change his faith.
 I inquired if it were true, as stated at Yuzgat, that Armenian
boys and girls had been carried away from their parents, and shut
up in Issek Pacha's seraglio.

"No! no," said one of my visitors. "At all events, we have never
heard of anything at all authentic as to such proceedings." When I
mentioned the subject of impalement, and asked if they had ever
known of any Christians who had been impaled by the Pacha's
orders, the three missionaries seemed very much surprised at the
question, one of them observed that the Turks were by no means a
cruel race; but that their system of administering justice was a bad
one.

I now learnt that the proprietor of the house in which I was

living was a shoemaker. The Pacha had hired from him the
apartments which I occupied, and which were generally given to
travellers. Mohammed, when he gave me this piece of information,
suggested that it would be a good opportunity for me to buy him a
pair of boots.

"Such beautiful boots as there are downstairs," he continued,

"the Effendi could get both his feet into one of them. They will keep
out the cold. If I do not have something over my slippers I shall be
frost-bitten before we reach Kars!"

The proprietor brought the boots for my inspection. He had a

very Jewish type of countenance, and at once commenced driving a
bargain with Mohammed.

"But you told me downstairs that the boots were 125 piastres,
and now you ask 165!" observed the Turkish servant indignantly.

"They are my boots, and not yours!" said the Armenian, "and I
shall charge what I like for them!"
 It appeared that the difference of opinion between Mohammed
and the shoemaker had arisen owing to the Armenian thinking that
he would be paid in caime, or bank notes, and not in silver. Caime in
Sivas had fallen to 165 piastres the lira. It was formerly 125; so by
the depreciation of the paper currency the shoemaker would lose 40
piastres on every pair of boots he sold, if purchased from him at the
present rate of exchange. Many of the Turks were alarmed at the
constant fall in the value of their paper currency. They objected very
strongly to being paid any large sums in Turkish bank-notes.
According to the son of Crispin, only ten years previous the
Government had issued an immense quantity of caime, and had said
that in the following month of March this paper would be accepted in
payment of the taxes.

"March arrived," continued the shoemaker, "we took our caime

to the tax-collectors. They would not receive it. A vast number of the
notes then issued are still in the possession of merchants in this
town, and are valueless."

When I was in Yuzgat Mr. Vankovitch had asked me to intercede

with Issek Pacha for an Italian lady, the widow of a Pole who had
died a few months previously in Sivas. The Pole had been the chief
engineer in the district, and at the time of his death was owed about
120l. by the Turkish authorities. His widow had applied to the Pacha
for this sum, but was refused payment on the ground that she had a
son, and that her late husband's father was still living.

"You must write to your husband's Ambassador," said the Pacha,

"and ask him to inform us how the law of succession is applied in his
country, we will then pay you everything to which you are entitled."

In the meantime an inhabitant took pity upon the Italian lady,

and had received her into his harem. Here she was now living, and
anxiously awaiting a reply from Constantinople to her letter. Months
passed away, no answer came. The poor woman had exhausted the
small resources which she possessed at the time of her husband's
death.
 CHAPTER XXVII.
The Governor calls—A great honour—The Khedive's treasurer—The Pacha's
carriage—The Turks and Christians—The Russian Government—The Armenian
subjects of the Porte—The seeds of disaffection—General Ignatieff—The
treasurer—The Italian lady—Erzingan—The Governor's invitation—The cold in
this country—The Pacha nearly frozen to death—His march from Kars to
Erzeroum—Deep chasms along the track—The Conference is over—The
Missionaries' home—American hospitality—The ladies—A Turkish woman in the
streets of New York—A Chinese lad—New Orleans—The Anglo-Indian telegraph
—The Franco-German War—The potato plant—The Armenians more deceitful
than the Turks—The converts to Protestantism—The Tzar's Government does not
tolerate any religion save its own—The superstitions attached to the Greek faith.

I was thinking of calling upon the Italian lady when Mohammed,

running into my room, informed me that the governor was actually
coming in person to call upon me, and that it was a great honour;
for some time before this the Khedive's treasurer had passed
through Sivas, and Issek Pacha had not deigned to visit him, but had
conversed with the Egyptian from the street.

"See what a great man you are, Effendi!" said the delighted
Mohammed. "The equal of a Pacha too! fortunate is my fate that I
have been assigned to you as a servant!"

The governor drove up to the door in a vehicle which very much

resembled a brewer's dray. It was the only carriage of any sort or
kind in Sivas. This fact alone added considerably to the Pacha's
importance in that town. He was a corpulent man, and required a
great deal of pushing at the hands of his two attendants to make
him pass through the doorway of the carriage; two steps enabled
the person inside the vehicle to descend to the ground.

Issek Pacha, turning with great caution, walked backwards, his

two servants holding his feet and guiding them to the steps below.
After resting a few seconds, to recover from this exertion, the
governor slowly mounted the staircase which led to my apartment.

He now told me that twenty-five years ago the Turks and

Christians got on very well together, but ever since the Crimean war
the Russian Government has been actively engaged in tampering
with the Armenian subjects of the Porte, and has been doing its best
to sow the seeds of disaffection amongst the younger Armenians, by
promising to make them counts and dukes in the event of their
rising in arms against the Porte.

"If it were not for Russian intrigues," continued the Pacha, "we
Turks should be very good friends with the Christians. But Ignatieff
is very clever, he will not let us alone, and does his best to create
discord in our ranks."

I mentioned the case of the Italian lady, and asked him if he

could not do something for her.

"It is a very difficult question," replied the Pacha; "her husband,

the engineer, was a refugee Pole, and had lost his nationality as a
Russian subject. Moreover, his father lives in Russia, and may claim
that the son's property should be administered according to
Muscovite laws. Then there is an infant child; and, besides this, the
lady herself is an Italian, and is expecting another baby. We have
written to Constantinople for instructions, when they arrive we shall
know what proportion of the husband's property is due to the
widow."