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Circuit Analysis
Zain Humayoun
Student ID – 001031353
Email – [email protected]

sided fundamentals such as diode etc.…

Abstract Thevenin theorem differs from Norton’s theorem as Norton is
The objective of the labs was to work through the practical usually a current form and Thevenin is the voltage form both
steps to build and construct Thevenin equivalent, Nodal for an equivalent circuit. Thevenin theorem is used for linear
analysis/Superposition and Transient response of RC Circuit circuit analysis mainly for two reasons such as Efficiency and
and to be familiar with the equipment’s that is used in these Focus.
labs such as Oscilloscope, Multimeter, Breadboard, Resistors,
Capacitors, Regulated DC supply and signal generator. Advantages: - (1) Simplifies a complex circuit into a basic
Also, the objective was to work out the methods to get the circuit.
results through calculations and measuring (2) Applicable to both ac and dc networks.
I. INTRODUCTION Disadvantages: - (1) It cannot be used in every circuit can
A circuit is a track between two or more points along which an only be used in linear and bilateral networks.
electrical current can be carried that is in electronics (Rouse,
2005).
B. Nodal Analysis and Superposition
In an electrical circuit the way toward considering and
investigating the different electrical amounts included,
particularly the nodal voltages and flows through calculations, Nodal Analysis is a technique for determining the voltage
is known as circuit analysis (Swagatam, n.d.). Circuit analysis (possible difference) between "nodes" and (emphases where
is basically finding out the voltages and currents in each mechanisms or branches associate) in an electrical circuit as
element. There are 3 methods for circuit analysis, and that is far as the branch currents (Anon., 2019). As the Kirchhoff law
Thevenin’s theorem, Nodal Analysis/superposition and states that the currents entering a node is exactly equal in
Transient response of the RC circuit. value to the currents leaving the node.
Nodal Analysis uses the “Nodal” equations of Kirchhoff’s first
rule to find the voltage abilities around the circuit. Then add
II. THEORIES AND BACKGROUND all the node voltages together which the net result will be zero.
The procedure is simple we first identify all the nodes in the
A. Thevenin’s theorem circuit, then a reference node is chosen, afterwards voltage
variables are allocated to the other nodes. KCL equation is
Thevenin’s Theorem was invented by a man called, Léon written for each node. And then equations are solved using
Charles Thevenin. matrices and Cramer’s law.

Thevenin’s theorem is a systematic method used to modify a Advantages: - (1) Quick and simple way of getting the
complex circuit into a basic identical circuit comprising of a voltages from nodal.
solitary resistance in series with a source voltage. By utilizing (2) Easier to get results.
Thevenin theorem it is probably going to make any electrical
circuit essential and simple, regardless of how perplexing, to Disadvantages: - (1) Long calculations to be done.
an identical two-terminal circuit with only a solitary constant (2) generally, takes a long time for the whole thing to be done
voltage source in series with an obstruction (or impedance) it
is significant in the circuit analysis of battery frameworks or in Whereas, superposition principle expresses that the system
different circuits which are interconnected. Where it will reaction to all sources can be determined by adding the
influence the adjoining part of the circuit (Anon., n.d.). responses to each source standing along, with all the other
sources.
But like any other circuit Thevenin has its own borders as well Superposition Theorem is fairly better than nodal analysis as it
like is not valid for the circuits that hold nonlinear elements takes the complex difficult issue and simplifies it in a way that
like transistors and diodes etc. or to the circuits that have one- makes it easier to know and understand. It mainly works on
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circuits that can be minimized to parallel or series

combination. This theorem states that with only one source of
power the circuit can be analyzed.

Advantages: - (1) Superposition is used for application of

network sources component.
(2). This hypothesis gives principle to the analysis of circuit

Disadvantages: - (1) Its not applicable for power calculations. Figure 1. Complex Circuit
(2) Only applicable for linear circuits only.
As shown in figure 1 this was the circuit which the current and
voltage were measured using a multimeter. Which were IR3 =
C. Transient response of the RC circuit 2.4mA and VR3 = 8.10V.

There are two kinds of responses 1st Transient Response which

is otherwise called a natural response this is a response of a
system to a change from equilibrium, (Output behaviour when
there is a change in input). And the 2nd is a steady-state
response that is what is left when transient dies away.
The grouping of a pure resistance R in ohms and pure
capacitance C in Farads is called RC circuit. The capacitor
reserves energy and the resistor connected in series with the
capacitor controls the charging and discharging of the Figure 2. Thevenin Theorem applied to Circuit
capacitor. The RC circuit is used in camera flashes,
pacemaker, timing circuit etc. (Anon., n.d.). As shown in figure 2 Thevenin’s theorem was applied to
calculate the voltage output which was VOC = 10.7V
Perfect and genuine capacitors: A perfect capacitor has a And then the actual Thevenin equivalent voltage was
boundless dielectric resistance and plates (made of metals) measured and the value was the same as calculated which was
that have zero opposition. Be that as it may, a perfect capacitor VOC = 10.7V.
doesn't exist as all dielectrics have some spillage flow and all
capacitor plates have some opposition. A capacitor's of how
much charge (current) it will permit to spill through the
dielectric medium. In a perfect world, a charged capacitor
should permit releasing any current through the dielectric
medium and furthermore expected not to scatter any power
misfortune in capacitor plates obstruction (Anon., n.d.).

III. EQUIPMENT USED Figure 3. Circuit with voltages removed

1. Breadboard
2. Multimeter As shown in figure 3, R3 and 12Vs was removed to calculate
3. Resistors RTH which was calculated and the result was 1071.4Ω
4. Regulated DC supply
5. Oscilloscope And then RTH was measured between points a and b which was
6. Signal Generator 1069Ω.
7. Capacitor

IV. METHOD AND RESULTS

A. Thevenin’s theorem

In order to get the results in Thevenin’s theorem lab, All the

voltage sources and load resistors should be removed to find
the Thevenin resistance.
Then we find the voltage by placing the voltages back. And
then use both the voltage and the resistance to get the current
which is flowing through the load. Figure 4. Thevenin equivalent circuit
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In figure 4, the Thevenin equivalent circuit was drawn using

the calculated VOC and RTH to calculate IR3 and VR3 which was
calculated using the given formula and the values were
IR3 = 2.45x10−3 A and VR3 = 8.08V.

Then the Current and Voltage were measured to get the values
of IR3 = 2.45 mA and VR3 = 8.08 mA

The values that were calculated and measured were the same.

B. Nodal Analysis and Superposition

Figure 3. Circuit 1 without 8V
Before the lab, there was a prelab to be completed as shown in
figure 1. Which was completed using Nodal analysis to get the Superposition Principle was then used which states that the
nodal voltages which were V1 = 3.56v, V2 = 0.37v and V3 = system response to all sources can be determined by summing
-4.23v. the response to each source acting along, with all the sources
“Zeroed”. The 8V power supply is removed in Figure 3 to
measure the nodal voltages which were V1 = 4.92v, V2 = 1.2v
and V3 = 1.1v

Figure 1. Prelab Calculations

Then the actual values were measured for voltages and Figure 4. Circuit 1 without 5V
resistors which were VS1 = 5.04v, VS2 = 8.1v, R1 = 0.99KΩ, R2
= 1.99KΩ, R3 = 3.98KΩ, R4 = 5.08KΩ, R5 = 9.99KΩ and R6 = Then the 5V power supply was removed as shown in figure 4.
19.99KΩ. Then the voltages were measured again in V1 = -0.32v, V2 = -
0.73V and V3 = -5.25V

afterwards the nodal voltages were calculated using

superposition principle which were V1 = 4.92+(-0.32) = 4.6V,
V2 = 1.2+(-0.73) = 0.47V and V3 = 1.1+(-5.25) = -4.15V

Both principles that were used during the lab were then
compared both the answers as shown below in table 1.
The results in superposition were slightly higher as compared
with nodal analysis because as shown in Figure 2 the values
Figure 2. Circuit 1 were the actual values on the circuit whereas the superposition
values were calculated.
Then using the multimeter, the nodal voltages were measured
in Figure 2. The measured values were V1 = 3.90v, V2 = 0.14v, Table1. Comparison of Nodal Analysis and Superposition
V3 = -5.68v.
the measured values were compared to the calculated values in
Figure 1 which showed that the calculated voltages were low
Nodal Superposition
to the measured values. 3.90 4.6
The resistor voltage drops were calculated after this using 0.14 0.47
measured nodal voltages from Figure 1. Which were V R1 =
1.17, VR2 = 0.41, VR3 = 2.32v, VR4 = 3.76, VR5 = 5.82 and VR6 = -5.68 -4.15
9.58v.
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C. Transient response of the RC circuit

An RC Circuit was built in series during the lab like Figure 1.

As shown below. The time constant was calculated by
multiplying the capacitor and Resistor which were
Τ = R*C = 100x103 x 10 x 10-9 = 1ms

The resistor was then measured which was 98.7 KΩ

Figure 1. Circuit 1
Figure 2. Sketch of VC VS Time with 300Hz
Then the signal generator was set up the frequency output was
set to 300Hz square wave with a 2Vp-p amplitude offset the Table 2. Recorded values (50Hz Input)
signal generator was connected with the circuit which was Time (µs) Voltage (V)
built as shown in Figure 1. A tee connector was also 200 1.11
connected to function generator to channel 2 of the scope. 400 2.23
Afterwards, Oscilloscope was set up. Scope probe was 600 2.98
connected to channel 1 of the oscilloscope. The probe was
connected to A and the ground to C. then probe was connected
1400 4.99
to B in order to measure the voltage across the capacitor VC. 2200 6.12
12100 6.78
Table 1. Recorded values (300Hz input) 12300 5.4
Time (µs) Voltage (V) 12500 4.58
480 2.48 12400 2.7
1320 4.566 13700 1.3
2000 13.12
2640 8.82 Then the frequency was adjusted to 50Hz in signal generator
3400 8.82 and the steps were repeated to get time and voltage values
were recorded 11 times as shown in Table 2. The VC Sketch
5000 0
can be seen in Figure3.
Then around 6 times the voltage and time were recorded as
shown in Table 1. and then VC was sketched as shown in
Figure 2.

Figure 3. Sketch of VC against Time with 50Hz

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V. DISCUSSION
Thevenin Theorem: - The objective of this lab was to work
through the procedural steps involved in Thevenin’s theorem.
Also, to verify the values obtained by measuring them using
the multimeter and to construct the Thevenin equivalent
circuit. Students learned how to use the Thevenin theorem
practically in this lab by building the circuit and testing it out
and comparing the calculated and measured values with each
other.

Nodal Analysis and Superposition: - The objective of the lab

is to demonstrate the nodal analysis and the superposition
principle using practical building and measurement. Students
Figure 4. Circuit 2 did a prelab calculation to help them during the lab after
applying nodal analysis and superposition both theorems were
Table 3. Recorded values (200Hz input) compared in the end as discussed in method and results.
Time (µs) Voltage (V)
Transient Response of RC circuit: - In this lab students used
480 2.4 a signal generator and oscilloscope to measure the transient
1320 4.5 voltage in a series RC circuit. Transients will be observed in
2000 13.2 the lab by applying a DC voltage that periodically changes
264 10.2 polarity the charging transients can then be observed each time
3400 8.4 the polarity flips. Students measured voltage and time multiple
times in this lab at different frequencies. Students got to know
5000 0 about integrating and differentiating circuit.
The circuit was then changed as shown in Figure 4. With VI. CONCLUSION
signal generator being set to 200Hz and then the steps were
repeated again, and time and voltage were recorded 6 times as
shown in Table 3. And VC was sketched as shown below in Circuit Analysis is fundamentally discovering the voltages and
figure 5. flows in every component. There are 3 techniques for circuit
investigation, and that is Thevenin’s theorem, Nodal
Analysis/superposition and Transient response of the RC
circuit.

All three of the methods are fairly easy to use during the lab’s
students learned how to analyze the circuit in all 3 ways using
common and basic equipment’s such as breadboard, resistors,
multimeter and oscilloscope. Students learned in detail about
each method such as how to conduct Thevenin’s theorem,
Nodal Analysis / Superposition and Transient response of the
circuit and how to get their results. Students also learned more
about the circuits distinguishing between which is integrating
and which is a differentiating circuit.

Figure 5. Sketch of Circuit 2 VC VS Time with 200Hz

The time Constant for τ1 and τ2 were the same there were no
differences. Then the actual value of capacitance was
measured which was 10 цF.
Regarding the frequency, minimum frequency is
recommended since the graph follows a conventional
exponential curve making it easy to pick reference points on
the graph and calculate.
Circuit 1 which is shown in Figure 1. is often described as an
Integrating circuit whereas the circuit 2 in Figure 4. Is
described as Differentiating circuit.
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VII. REFERENCES
Anon., 2019. Nodal Analysis. [Online]
Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nodal_analysis
[Accessed 27 September 2019].
Anon., n.d. Thevenin Theorem for DC Circuits. [Online]
Available at: https://www.electronics-
tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_7.html
[Accessed 27 September 2019].
Anon., n.d. Transient Response of RC Circuits. [Online]
Available at: https://www.brainkart.com/article/Transient-
Response-of-RC-Circuits_6634/
[Accessed 30 September 2019].
Anon., n.d. What Is an RC Circuit. [Online]
Available at: https://circuitglobe.com/what-is-an-rc-resistor-
capacitor-circuit.html
[Accessed 30 September 2019].
Rouse, M., 2005. Circuit. [Online]
Available at: https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/circuit
[Accessed 27 September 2019].
Swagatam, n.d. What is Circuit Analysis? Basic Theory
Expounded. [Online]
Available at:
https://www.brighthubengineering.com/commercial-electrical-
applications/71099-introduction-to-basic-engineering-circuit-
analysis/
[Accessed 9 December 2019].

Appendix

LAB 1
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Lab 2
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LAB 3
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