Class Note

of

OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING

USING JAVA
Course Code: 18ES1T06

Prepared
by

Jasaswi Prasad Mohanty

Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Silicon Institute of Technology
Bhubaneswar
Syllabus:
Object oriented concepts: Object oriented systems development life cycle, Unified
Modeling Language, UML class diagram, Use-case diagram; Java Overview: Java
Module
Virtual Machine, Java buzz words, Data types, Operators, Control statements,
I
Class fundamentals, Objects, Methods, Constructors, Overloading, Access
modifiers.
Inheritance: Basics of Inheritance, using super and final keyword, method
overriding, Abstract classes, defining and importing packages, access protection,
Module
interfaces; Exception handling: Exception fundamentals, types, understanding
II
different keywords (try, catch, finally, throw, throws), User defined exception
handling.
Input/Output: Files, stream classes, reading console input; Threads: thread model,
Module
use of Thread class and Runnable interface, thread synchronization,
III
multithreading, inter thread communication.
String manipulation: Basics of String handling, String class, StringBuilder,
Module
StringBuffer, StringTokenizer. Applet basics and life cycle; Event Handling:
IV
delegation event model, event classes, sources, listeners, Adapter class.
Introduction to GUI Programming: working with windows, frames, graphics,
Module color, and font. AWT Control fundamentals. Swing overview; JavaFX overview;
V Java database connectivity: JDBC overview, creating and executing queries,
dynamic queries.

Books:
1. JAVA Complete Reference (9th Edition), Herbalt Schelidt.
2. Core JAVA – An Integrated Approach, Dr. R. Nageswara Rao

Web Resources:
1. For Java Tutorial: https://www.javatpoint.com/history-of-java
2. For Java API: http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/.

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 2
Scope & Objective:
The objective of this course is to introduce the key concepts of object-oriented
programming (OOP) using Java as the programming language.
Pre-Requisite:
 Knowledge of any one programming language - preferably C
 Knowledge of Data Structure.
 Some familiarity with Object Oriented Programming is desired but not required.
Outcome:
Upon completion of this course, students will be able to:
1. Apply object oriented principles in software design process to develop Java programs
for real life applications.
2. Employ inheritance and exception handling techniques for developing robust and
reusable software.
3. Develop programs using stream classes for various I/O operations and design
concurrent programs using threads to maximize the use of processing power.
4. Design applications for text processing using String class and develop user interactive
applications using event handling.
5. Design database driven GUI applications using AWT, Swing and JDBC.

Detail Hand-out
1. Introduction to Object Oriented Programming (OOP), Features of T1/Chapter 2
OOP, Advantages & Disadvantages of OOP
2. Introduction to Java (What is Java, Where Java is used, Brief T1/Chapter 1
History of Java), Features of Java (Java Buzzwords)
3. Java’s Magic - The Bytecode, Introduction to Java Virtual T1/Chapter 1
Machine, Simple Java Program, Java compilation process, Java
libraries, Setting class path
4. Data Types: Primitive and non-Primitive data types, Operators, T1/Chapter 3, 4
Type Conversion
5. Arrays (1D Array, Multi-dimensional Array): Initialization and T1/Chapter 3
processing
6. Introduction to Class & Objects: Form of a Java Class, Declaring T1/Chapter 6
Object, Adding Methods to class, Array of Objects
7. Constructor, Types of Constructor (Default & Parameterized), T1/Chapter 6
Difference between Constructor & Method
8. Method Overloading, Constructor Overloading, Argument Passing, T1/Chapter 7
Returning Objects
9. Static keyword (static instance variable, static method, static block, T1/Chapter 6, 7
static class), this keyword
10. Access Specifiers: public, private, protected, default T1/Chapter 7
11. Inheritance: Understanding inheritance with its advantage and T1/Chapter 8
disadvantage, Types of Inheritance
12. Using super and final keyword T1/Chapter 8
13. Polymorphism, Compile time vs run time polymorphism, Method T1/Chapter 8
overriding, Overloading vs overriding, dynamic method despatch
14. Wrapper Class, Autoboxing, Unboxing, Abstract Class, Abstract T1/Chapter 12
method

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 3
 15. Interface, Interface vs Abstract class T1/Chapter 9
16. Packages: Definition, finding packages and CLASSPATH, T1/Chapter 9
importing packages
17. Exception Handling: Exception fundamentals, types, using try & T1/Chapter 10
catch, multiple catch clauses, nested try, throw, throws, finally
18. User defined exception T1/Chapter 10
19. Nested class and Inner class, static nested class, non-static nested T1/Chapter 7
class, Anonymous Inner Class
20. Multithreading, Thread vs Process, Thread Life Cycle (States of T1/Chapter 11
Thread), The main thread
21. Creating a thread by implementing Runnable interface T1/Chapter 11
22. Creating a thread by extending the Thread class T1/Chapter 11
23. Creating multiple threads, Using isAlive() and join(), Thread T1/Chapter 11
PrioritiesThread Synchronization
24. Input/Output: File, Byte Stream classes (FileOutputStream, T1/Chapter 13
FileInputStream, BufferedOutputStream, BufferedInputStream,
RandomAccessFile), Reading/Writing in a file
25. Character Stream classes (FileReader, FileWriter, BufferedReader, T1/Chapter 13
BufferedWriter)
26. Reading Console Input, Writing Console Output T1/Chapter 13
27. String: Creating & initializing a string, Finding length of string, T1/Chapter 16
string concatenation, String conversion and toString(), Character
extraction, String comparison, Searching a string, Modifying
strings, trimming a string
28. StringBuffer, StringBuilder, StringTokenizer class. Difference T1/Chapter 16
between String, StringBuffer & StringBuilder class
29. Applet: Introduction, Life cycle of an Applet, Creating an Applet, T1/Chapter 23
Applet Class
30. Applet display methods, Requesting Repainting, Passing T1/Chapter 23
Parameters to Applets
31. Working with Graphics, Graphics Class' Drawing Methods, Colors T1/Chapter 25
& Font class
32. Event Handling: Introduction T1/Chapter 24
33. Handling Mouse Events T1/Chapter 24
34. Handling Keyboard Events T1/Chapter 24
35. Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT), AWT Hierarchy, Container & T1/Chapter 25
Components: Window, Frame, Panel
36. Creating Window Programming, Creating a Frame T1/Chapter 25
37. Java LayoutManagers (BorderLayout, FlowLayout, GridLayout, T1/Chapter 26
CardLayout), Label, Push Button, Check Box, Text Field, Radio
Button, TextArea, Choice, List, ScrollBar
38. Swing, Difference between AWT & Swing, MVC Model, T1/Chapter 31
Components and Container
39. Creating Frame in Swing, JLabel, JButton, JTextField, JTextArea T1/Chapter 32
Class
40. JDBC: Types of Driver, Driver Class, Connection Class, ResultSet T1/Chapter
41. Connecting MySQL database T1/Chapter
42. Collection classes: ArrayList, LinkedList, HashSet, TreeSet, T1/Chapter 18/19
PriorityQueue, HashMap Legacy Classes: Vector, Stack,

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 4
 MODULE I

1. PROGRAMMING LANGUGES
 A programming language is a notation designed to connect instructions to a machine or a
computer. Programming languages are mainly used to control the performance of a machine or to
express algorithms.
 A programming language is a vocabulary and set of
grammatical rules for instructing a computer or
computing device to perform specific tasks. The term
programming language usually refers to high-level
languages, such as BASIC, C, C++, COBOL, Java,
FORTRAN, Ada, and Pascal.
 Each programming language has a unique set of
keywords (words that it understands) and a special
syntax for organizing program instructions.
1.1. Types of Programming Languages
Different kinds of languages have been developed to perform different types of work on the
computer. Basically, languages can be divided into different categories according to how the
computer understands them. Programming languages are mainly classified into the following
types:
 Procedural Programming Language: A procedural language is a computer programming
language that specifies a series of well-structured steps and procedures within its
programming context procedures with its programming context to compose a program. It is
known as imperative language. A program written in a procedural language contains one or
more procedures. It determines how and what a process should be done. To execute the
program is procedural language stepwise procedure must be followed. The fundamental
building blocks of procedural programming are instructions. Examples of procedural
programming languages include C, FORTRAN, ALGOL, COBOL and BASIC.
 Functional Programming Language: In functional programs, data passes through your
code like water through a pipe (from function to function to function) to get a result. Also,
functions are treated as data to be worked on just like anything else in our program. We can
take functions as a parameter, return them, build custom functions, and build functions
from other functions. The fundamental building blocks of functional programming are
functions. Examples of functional programming languages include Lisp, Scheme, Clojure,
Wolfram Language (also known as Mathematica), Racket, Erlang, OCaml, Haskell, and F#.
 Object Oriented Programming Language: Object-oriented programming, as it's practiced
by most developers, is pretty much like procedural programming, but it encapsulates data
and behavior into objects. Object-oriented programmers can also define hierarchies of types
and subtypes. This is meant to help with code reuse. The fundamental building blocks of
object-oriented programming is object. Examples of object-oriented programming
languages include Java, C++, C#, Python, PHP, Ruby, Perl, Object Pascal, Objective-C,
Dart, Swift, Scala, Common Lisp, and Smalltalk.
Generation of Programming Languages:
a) Machine Level Language / First Generation Language: A machine language consists of
the numeric codes for the operations that a particular computer can execute directly. The
codes are strings of 0s and 1s, or binary digits (“bits”). Machine level language instructions
typically use some bits to represent operations, such as addition, and some to represent
operands, or perhaps the location of the next instruction. A computer can understand only
JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 5
 this language. This language is difficult to read and write, since it does not resemble
conventional mathematical notation or human language, and its codes vary from computer
to computer. Each different type of CPU has its own unique machine level language.
 Advantages: Directly interact with computer system, takes less time to execute the
program.
 Disadvantages: Hard to understand and debug program, Time consuming to
develop new programs, Not portable.
b) Assembly Level Language / Second Generation Language: Assembly language is one
level above machine language. It uses short mnemonic codes for instructions and allows the
programmer to introduce names for blocks of memory that hold data. One might thus write
“ADD PAY, TOTAL” instead of “0110101100101000” for an instruction that adds two
numbers. Assembly language is designed to be easily translated into machine language.
Although blocks of data may be referred to by name instead of by their machine addresses,
assembly language does not provide more sophisticated means of organizing complex
information. Like machine language, assembly language requires detailed knowledge of
internal computer architecture. We need an assembler (a system software) to translate
assembly level language into machine-level language.
 Advantages: Easily understandable since it uses statements instead of binary digits,
Debugging and troubleshot is easy. Developing a program takes less time. Portable.
 Disadvantages: It’s a machine dependent language due to that program design for
one machine no use of other machine, sometime it’s hard to understand the
statement or command use.
c) High Level Language / Third Generation Language: It is the upper level language because
the language comes under this category is closer to human languages. Hence, this is highly
understood programming language by human. We need a compiler and/or interpreter system
software) to translate high level language into machine level language. There are many
examples of high level languages such as FORTRAN, C, C++, JAVA, COBOL, LISP,
Prolog etc.
 Advantages: Instructions are easier to remember, Debugging is easier, Program
development is less time taking, Portable
 Disadvantages: Takes more space compared to other generation languages,
Execute slowly.
There are some other types of programming languages also. Some of them are listed below:
 System languages: that are designed for writing low-level tasks, like memory and process
management, data transfer etc.
 Scripting languages: Scripting languages are used for wiring together systems and
applications at a very high level. They are almost always extremely expressive (they do a
lot with very little code) and usually dynamic (meaning the compiler does very little, while
the run-time system does almost everything). These are generally extremely high-level and
powerful.
 Domain-specific languages: that are used in highly special-purpose areas only
2. COMPILER AND INTERPRETER:
 There are two ways to run programs written in a high-level language. The most common is to
compile the program; the other method is to pass the program through an interpreter. Hence, a
compiler or an interpreter is a program that converts program written in high-level language into
machine code understood by the computer.
 Compiled programs generally run faster than interpreted programs. The advantage of an
interpreter, however, is that it does not need to go through the compilation stage during which

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 6
 machine instructions are generated. This process can be time-consuming if the program is long.
The interpreter, on the other hand, can immediately execute high-level programs.
 For this reason, interpreters are sometimes used during the development of a program, when a
programmer wants to add small sections at a time and test them quickly. In addition, interpreters
are often used in education because they allow students to program interactively.
 The basic difference is that a compiler system, including a (built in or separate) linker, generates a
stand-alone machine code program, while an interpreter system instead performs the actions
described by the high level program.
 Once a program is compiled, its source code is not useful for running the code. For interpreted
programs, the source code is needed to run the program every time.
 Java programs are first compiled to an intermediate form (.class file), then interpreted by the
interpreter.
 Major differences between Interpreter and Compiler are listed below:
Interpreter Compiler
Translates program one statement at a Scans the entire program and translates it
time. as a whole into machine code.
It takes less amount of time to analyse the It takes large amount of time to analyse the
source code but the overall execution time source code but the overall execution time
is slower. is comparatively faster.
No intermediate object code is generated, Generates intermediate object code which
hence are memory efficient. further requires linking, hence requires
more memory.
Continues translating the program until It generates the error message only after
the first error is met, in which case it scanning the whole program. Hence
stops. Hence debugging is easy. debugging is comparatively hard.
Programming language like Python, Ruby Programming language like C, C++ uses
uses interpreters. compilers.

3. OBJECT-ORIENTED PROGRAMMING:
 Object-oriented programming (OOP) refers to a type of computer programming (software design)
in which programmers define not only the data type of a data structure, but also the types of
operations (functions) that can be applied to the data structure.
 In this way, the data structure becomes an object that includes both data and functions. In addition,
programmers can create relationships between one object and another. For example, objects can
inherit characteristics from other objects.
 One of the principal advantages of object-oriented programming techniques over procedural
programming techniques is that they enable programmers to create modules that do not need to be
changed when a new type of object is added. A programmer can simply create a new object that
inherits many of its features from existing objects. This makes object-oriented programs easier to
modify.
 The programming challenge was seen as how to write the logic, not how to define the data. Object-
oriented programming takes the view that what we really care about are the objects we want to
manipulate rather than the logic required to manipulate them.
 The first step in OOP is to identify all the objects the programmer wants to manipulate and how
they relate to each other, an exercise often known as data modeling. Once an object has been
identified, it is generalized as a class of objects which defines the kind of data it contains and any
logic sequences that can manipulate it. Each distinct logic sequence is known as a method. Objects
communicate with well-defined interfaces called messages.
 Simula is considered as the first object-oriented programming language.

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 7
 The programming paradigm where everything is represented as an object is known as truly object-
oriented programming language. Smalltalk is considered as the first truly object-oriented
programming language.
3.1. Features of object-oriented programming:
 Object: Object means a real
word entity such as pen, chair,
table etc. Any entity that has
state and behavior is known as
an object. Example: chair, pen,
table, keyboard, bike etc. It can
be physical and logical.
 Class: Collection of similar
objects is called class. It is a
logical entity. These contain
data and functions bundled together under a unit. So, object is an instance of a class.
 Abstraction: Hiding internal details and showing
functionality is known as abstraction. For example:
phone call, we don't know the internal processing. In
JAVA, we use abstract class and interface to achieve
abstraction.
 Encapsulation: Binding (or wrapping) code and data together into a single unit is known
as encapsulation. For example: capsule, it is
wrapped with different medicines. A java
class is the example of encapsulation.
 Polymorphism: Poly and morphism refer
many and form respectively. So
Polymorphism as the name suggests is a
certain item appearing in different forms or
ways. When one task is performed by
different ways i.e. known as polymorphism.
An example can be to speak something e.g.
cat speaks meaw, dog barks woof etc. That is
making a function to act in different forms
depending on the place they are present is
called Polymorphism. In java, we use method
overloading and method overriding to achieve
polymorphism. This is a very important feature of object oriented programming
methodology which has extended the handling of data type and operations.
 Inheritance: Inheritance is the concept of inheriting or deriving properties of an existing
class to get new class or classes. In other words we may have common features or
characteristics that may be needed by number of classes. So those features can be placed in
a common tree class called base class and the other classes which have these characteristics
can take the tree class and define only the new things that they have on their own in their
classes. These classes are called derived class. The main advantage of using this concept of
inheritance in Object oriented programming is it helps in reducing the code size since the
common characteristic is placed separately called as base class and it is just referred in the
derived class. This provide the users the important usage of terminology called as
reusability.

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 8
 3.2. Advantages of object-oriented programming:
 OOPs provide ability to simulate real-world event much more effectively.
 Improved software-development productivity: Object-oriented programming is modular, as
it provides separation of duties in object-based program development. It is also extensible, as
objects can be extended to include new attributes and behaviors. Objects can also be reused
within an across applications. Because of these three factors – modularity, extensibility, and
reusability – object-oriented programming provides improved software-development
productivity over traditional procedure-based programming techniques.
 Improved software maintainability: For the reasons mentioned above, object oriented
software is also easier to maintain. Since the design is modular, part of the system can be
updated in case of issues without a need to make large-scale changes.
 Faster development: Reuse enables faster development. Object-oriented programming
languages come with rich libraries of objects, and code developed during projects is also
reusable in future projects.
 Lower cost of development: The reuse of software also lowers the cost of development.
Typically, more effort is put into the object-oriented analysis and design, which lowers the
overall cost of development.
 Higher-quality software: Faster development of software and lower cost of development
allows more time and resources to be used in the verification of the software. Although quality
is dependent upon the experience of the teams, object oriented programming tends to result in
higher-quality software.
 Data Protection or security of data is achieved by concept of data hiding.
3.3. Disadvantages of object-oriented programming:
 Steep learning curve: The thought process involved in object-oriented programming may not
be natural for some people, and it can take time to get used to it. It is complex to create
programs based on interaction of objects. Some of the key programming techniques, such as
inheritance and polymorphism, can be challenging to comprehend initially.
 Larger program size: Object-oriented programs typically involve more lines of code than
procedural programs.
 Slower programs: Object-oriented programs are typically slower than procedure based
programs, as they typically require more instructions to be executed.
 Not suitable for all types of problems: There are problems that lend themselves well to
functional-programming style, logic-programming style, or procedure-based programming
style, and applying object-oriented programming in those situations will not result in efficient
programs.
4. INTRODUCTION TO JAVA:
4.1. What is JAVA:
1. Java is a programming language and a platform. (Platform: Any hardware or software
environment in which a program runs is known as a platform. Since Java has its own
runtime environment (JRE) and API, it is called platform.)
2. Java is a high level, robust, secured and object-oriented programming language.
4.2. Where JAVA is used:
3. Desktop Applications such as acrobat reader, media player, antivirus etc.
4. Web Applications such as irctc.co.in, javatpoint.com etc.
5. Enterprise Applications such as banking applications.
6. Mobile
7. Embedded System
8. Smart Card
JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 9
 9. Robotics
10. Games etc.
4.3. Types of JAVA Applications:
1. Standalone Application: Standalone applications are also known as desktop applications
or window-based applications. These are traditional software that we need to install on
every machine. Example of standalone applications are: Media player, antivirus etc. AWT
and Swing are used in java for creating standalone applications.
2. Web Applications: An application that runs on the server side and creates dynamic page,
is called web application. Currently, servlet, jsp, struts, spring, hibernate, jsf etc.
technologies are used for creating web applications in java.
3. Enterprise Application: An application that is distributed in nature, such as banking
applications etc. is called enterprise application. It has the advantage of high level security,
load balancing and clustering. In java, EJB is used for creating enterprise applications.
4. Mobile Application: An application that is created for mobile devices. Currently Android
and Java ME are used for creating mobile applications.
4.4. JAVA Platforms / Editions:
1. Java SE (Java Standard Edition): It is a java programming platform. It includes Java
programming APIs such as java.lang, java.io, java.net, java.util, java.sql, java.math etc. It
includes core topics like OOPs, String, Regex, Exception, Inner classes, Multithreading,
I/O Stream, Networking, AWT, Swing, Reflection, and Collection etc.
2. Java EE (Java Enterprise Edition): It is an enterprise platform which is mainly used to
develop web and enterprise applications. It is built on the top of Java SE platform. It
includes topics like Servlet, JSP, Web Services, EJB, JPA etc.
3. Java ME (Java Micro Edition): It is a micro platform which is mainly used to develop
mobile applications.
4. JavaFx: It is used to develop rich internet applications. It uses light-weight user interface
API.
4.5. Why JAVA:
Java is the best programming language in terms of opportunities, development and community
support because of the following reasons:
1. Java is Easy to learn: Java has fluent English like syntax with minimum magic characters
e.g. Generics angle brackets, which makes it easy to read Java program and learn quickly.
Once a programmer is familiar with initial hurdles with installing JDK and setting up
PATH and understands How Classpath works, it's pretty easy to write a program in Java.
2. Java is an Object Oriented Programming Language: Developing OOP application is
much easier, and it also helps to keep system modular, flexible and extensible. Once you
have knowledge of key OOP concepts like Abstraction, Encapsulation, Polymorphism, and
Inheritance, you can use all those with Java.
3. Java has rich API: An API is a .html file that contains description of all the features of a
software, a product, or a technology. API document is helpful for the user to understand
how to use the software or technology.
Java application programming interface (API) is a list of all classes that are part of the
Java development kit (JDK). It includes all Java packages, classes, and interfaces, along
with their methods, fields, and constructors. These prewritten classes provide a tremendous
amount of functionality to a programmer. A programmer should be aware of these classes
and should know how to use them.
4. Powerful development tools: Eclipse and Netbeans have played a huge role to make Java
one of the best programming languages. Coding in Integrated Development Environment

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 10
 (IDE) not only helps in code completion but also provides powerful debugging capability,
which is essential for real-world development. IDE made Java development much easier,
faster and fluent. It's easy to search, re-factor and read code using IDEs.
5. Great collection of Open Source Libraries: Open source libraries ensure that Java should
be used everywhere. Apache, Google, and other organization have contributed a lot of great
libraries, which makes Java development easy, faster and cost-effective.
6. Wonderful Community Support: A strong and thriving community is the biggest strength
of Java programming language and platform. No matter, how good a language is, it
wouldn't survive, if there is no community to support, help and share their knowledge. Java
has been very lucky, it has lots of active forums, StackOverflow, open source organizations
and several Java user groups to help everything. There is the community to help beginners,
advanced and even expert Java programmers.
7. Java is FREE: Since Java is free from the start, i.e. you don't need to pay anything to
create Java application. This FREE thing also helped Java to become popular among
individual programmers, and among large organizations. Availability of Java programmers
is another big thing, which makes an organization to choose Java for their strategic
development.
8. Excellent documentation support: Javadoc, is a great piece of documentation, which
tells a lot of things about Java API. Java wouldn't be as popular, without Javadoc. Javadoc
made learning easy, and provide an excellent reference while coding in Java. With the
advent of Integrated Development Environment (IDE)s e.g. Eclipse, we don't even need to
look Javadoc explicitly in the browser, but we can get all information in our IDE window
itself.
9. Java is Platform Independent: In the 1990s, this was the main reason for Java's
popularity. The idea of platform independence is great, and Java's tagline "write once run
anywhere (WORA)" was enticing enough to attract lots of new development in Java.
10. Java is everywhere: Java is everywhere, it's on the desktop, mobile, card, almost
everywhere and so is Java programmers. This huge availability of Java programmers is
another reason, why organization prefers to choose Java for new development than any
other programming language. Also, OOP is one of the best programming paradigms, and as
long as it will be there Java will remain solid.
4.6. History behind JAVA:
Java was originally designed for interactive television, but it was too advanced technology for
the digital cable television industry at the time. Java team members (also known as Green
Team), initiated this project to develop a language for digital devices such as set-top boxes,
televisions etc. But, it was suited for internet programming. Later, Java technology was
incorporated by Netscape. There are given the major points that describes the history of java
1) James Gosling, Mike Sheridan, and Patrick Naughton
initiated the Java language project in June 1991. The small
team of sun engineers called Green Team.
2) Originally designed for small, embedded systems in
electronic appliances like set-top boxes.
3) Firstly, it was called "Greentalk" by James Gosling and
file extension was .gt.
4) After that, it was called Oak and was developed as a part
of the Green project.
5) Why Oak? Oak is a symbol of strength and chosen as a
national tree of many countries like U.S.A., France, Germany, Romania etc.

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 11
 6) In 1995, Oak was renamed as "Java" because it was already a trademark by Oak
Technologies.
7) Why had they chosen java name for java language? The
team gathered to choose a new name. The suggested words
were "dynamic", "revolutionary", "Silk", "jolt", "DNA" etc.
They wanted something that reflected the essence of the
technology: revolutionary, dynamic, lively, cool, unique,
and easy to spell and fun to say. According to James
Gosling "Java was one of the top choices along with Silk".
Since java was so unique, most of the team members preferred java.
8) Java is an island of Indonesia where first coffee was produced (called java coffee).
9) Originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems (which is now a subsidiary
of Oracle Corporation) and released in 1995.
10) In 1995, Time magazine called Java one of the ten best Products of 1995.
11) JDK 1.0 released in January 23, 1996.
4.7.History of JAVA versions:
The following are many java versions that have been released.
1. JDK Alpha and Beta (1995)
2. JDK 1.0 (23rd Jan, 1996)
3. JDK 1.1 (19th Feb, 1997)
4. J2SE 1.2 (8th Dec, 1998)
5. J2SE 1.3 (8th May, 2000)
6. J2SE 1.4 (6th Feb, 2002)
7. J2SE 5.0 (30th Sep, 2004)
8. Java SE 6 (11th Dec, 2006)
9. Java SE 7 (28th July, 2011)
10. Java SE 8 (18th March, 2014)
11. Java SE 9 (21st Sep, 2017)
12. Java SE 10 (March, 2018)
13. Java SE 11 (September, 2018)
14. Java SE 12 (March, 2019)
Current stable release of Java is Java SE 9.
4.8. Difference between C, C++ and Java:
The following are the major differences between C, C++ and Java.
Aspects C C++ Java
Developed Year 1972 1979 1991
Developed By Dennis Ritchie Bjarne Stroustrup James Gosling
Successor of BCPL C C(Syntax) & C++
(Structure)
Paradigms Procedural Object Oriented Object Oriented
Platform Dependency Dependent Dependent Independent
Keywords 32 63 50

Datatypes : union, Supported Supported Not Supported

structure
Pre-processor Supported (#include, Supported Not Supported
directives #define) (#include, #define)
Header files Supported Supported Use Packages (import)
Inheritance No Inheritance Supported Multiple Inheritance not
Supported

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 12
 Overloading No Overloading Supported Operator Overloading
not Supported
Pointers Supported Supported No Pointers
Code Translation Compiled Compiled Interpreted
Storage Allocation Uses malloc, calloc Uses new , delete uses garbage collector
Multi-threading and Not Supported Not Supported Supported
Interfaces
Exception Handling No Exception Supported Supported
handling
Templates Not Supported Supported Not Supported
Storage class: auto, Supported Supported Not Supported
extern
Destructors No Constructor or Supported Not Supported
Destructor
Database Not Supported Not Supported Supported
Connectivity
4.9. Java’s Magic - The Bytecode:
 The output of a Java compiler is not executable code rather it is bytecode.
 Bytecode is a highly optimized set of instructions designed to be executed by the Java run-
time system which is called Java Virtual Machine (JVM).
 Translating a Java program into bytecode makes it much easier to run a program in a wide
variety of environments because only the JVM needs to be implemented for each platform.

 Although the details of the JVM differ from platform to platform, all understands the same
Java Bytecode. The execution of bytecode by the JVM is the easiest way to create truly
portable programs.
 JVM prevents the program from generating side effects outside of the system and hence
helps to make it secure.
 As Java program is compiled to an intermediate form and then interpreted by a JVM it runs
slower than programs of other languages. However, the Java Bytecode is highly optimized,
and enables the JVM to execute programs in a much faster rate.
 The HotSpot technology of java provides a Just-In-Time (JIT) compiler for bytecode. The
JIT compiler is part of the JVM. It compiles the selected portion of the bytecode into
executable code in real-time, on a piece-by-piece, as it is needed, during execution. This
increases the performance of execution of Java Programs.
4.10. Features of JAVA:
The main objective of Java programming language creation was to make it portable, simple
and secure programming language. Apart from this, there are also some awesome features
which play important role in the popularity of this language. The features of Java are also

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 13
 known as java buzzwords. Following is a list of most important features of Java language.
The Java Features given below are simple and easy to understand.
1. Simple: Java is very easy to learn and its syntax is simple, clean and easy to
understand. According to Sun, Java language is simple because:
 Syntax is based on C/C++ (easier for programmers to learn it after C++).
 Removed many confusing and/or rarely-used features e.g., explicit pointers,
operator overloading etc.
 No need to remove unreferenced objects because there is Automatic Garbage
Collection in java.
2. Object-Oriented: Java is Object-oriented programming language. Everything in Java
is an object. Object-oriented means we organize our software as a combination of
different types of objects that incorporates both data and behaviour. Object-oriented
programming (OOPs) is a methodology that simplifies software development and
maintenance by providing some rules. The object model in Java is simple and easy to
extend, while primitive types, such as integers, are kept high-performance non objects.
3. Robust: Robust simply means strong. Java is robust because:
 It uses strong memory management to allocate and deallocate memory.
 There is automatic garbage collection in java.
 There is lack of pointers that avoids security problem.
 There is object-oriented exception handling and type checking mechanism in java.
4. Multithreaded: A thread is like a separate program, executing concurrently. Java
supports multithreaded programming, which allows you to write programs that do
many things simultaneously. We can write Java programs that deal with many tasks at
once by defining multiple threads. The main advantage of multi-threading is that it
doesn't occupy memory for each thread. It shares a common memory area. Threads are
important for multi-media, Web applications etc.
5. Architecture-neutral: Java is architecture neutral because there is no implementation
dependent features e.g. size of primitive types is fixed. In C programming, int data
type occupies 2 bytes of memory for 32-bit architecture and 4 bytes of memory for 64-
bit architecture. But in java, it occupies 4 bytes of memory for both 32 and 64 bit
architectures.
6. Interpreted and High Performance: Java enables the creation of cross-platform
programs by compiling into an intermediate representation called Java bytecode. This
code can be executed on any system that implements the Java Virtual Machine. Java
bytecode is carefully designed so that it would be easy to translate directly into native
machine code for high performance without losing any benefits of the platform-
independent code. Java is faster than traditional interpretation since bytecode is
"close" to native code still somewhat slower than a compiled language (e.g., C++).
Java is an interpreted language, so it is also a reason that why it is slower than
compiled language C, C++.
7. Distributed: Java is distributed because it facilitates us to create distributed
applications in java. It is designed for the distributed environment of the Internet
because it handles TCP / IP protocols. RMI and EJB are used for creating distributed
applications. We may access files by calling the methods from any machine on the
internet.
8. Secured: Java is best known for its security. With Java, we can develop virus-free
systems. Java is secured because:
 It has no explicit pointer

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 14
  Java Programs run inside virtual machine sandbox

 Classloader: Classloader in Java is a part of the Java Runtime Environment

(JRE) which is used to dynamically load Java classes into the Java Virtual
Machine. It adds security by separating the package for the classes of the local
file system from those that are imported from network sources.
 Bytecode Verifier: It checks the code fragments for illegal code that can
violate access right to objects.
 Security Manager: It determines what resources a class can access such as
reading and writing to the local disk.
9. Platform independent: Java is platform independent because it is different from
other languages like C, C++ etc. which are compiled into platform specific machines
while Java is a write once, run anywhere language.
The Java platform differs from most other platforms in the sense that it is a
software-based platform that runs on the top of other hardware-based platforms. It has
two components: Runtime Environment, Application Programming Interface (API).
Java code can be run on multiple platforms e.g. Windows, Linux, Sun Solaris, Mac /
OS etc. Java code is compiled by the compiler and converted into bytecode. This
bytecode is a platform-independent code because it can be run on multiple platforms
i.e. Write Once and Run Anywhere (WORA).
10. Portable: Java is portable because it facilitates you to carry the java byte code to any
platform.
11. Dynamic: Java programs carry with them substantial amounts of run-time type
information that is used to verify and resolve accesses to objects at run time. This is
crucial to the robustness of the applet environment, in which small fragments of
bytecode may be dynamically updated on a running system.
4.11. First Java Program:
Requirement for Running a Java Program:
For executing any java program, we need to:
 Download the JDK and install it.
 Set path of the jdk/bin directory.
 Create the java program
 Compile and run the java program
Program:
To write a simple Java program, open notepad or (Notepad++) and write simple program as
displayed below:
/*
My First Java Progam

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 15
 Save this file with name “First.java”
*/
class First{
public static void main(String args[]){
System.out.println("This is my first java program.");
}
}
Save as: First.java
Compile: javac First.java
Run: java First
Output: This is my first java program.
To compile and run this program, you need to open command prompt by either of the
following two ways:
 From Notepad++: File  Open Containing Folder  cmd
 From start button: Start menu  All Programs  Accessories  command prompt.

NOTE:
 Extension of a java file should be .java.
 In java all code must reside inside a class.
 Name of the class should match the name of the file that holds the program.
 Java is case sensitive.
 After compilation the java compiler called javac converts the source code First.java
into its bytecode First.class.
 When Java source code is compiled, each individual class is put into its own output file
named after the class and uses the .class extension.
 The java interpreter called java uses the class name as a command–line argument. The
interpreter searches for a file by that name that has the .class extension.
 The first four lines are for multiline commenting.
 class keyword is used to declare a class in java.
 First is the class name. In Java all program activity occurs within class. That is why
all Java programs are object-oriented.
 Program execution begins by calling main().
 The public keyword is an access modifier. The other type of access specifier is
private. Access specifier allows the programmer to control the visibility of class
members. Public members can be accessed by code outside the class in which it is
declared. That means public members are visible to all. The function main( ) must
be declared as public, since it must be called by code outside of its class when the
program is started.
 static is a keyword, if we declare any method as static, it is known as static method.
The keyword static allows main( ) to be called without having to instantiate a
particular instance of the class. This is a necessary requirement since main( ) is called
by the Java Virtual Machine before any objects are made.
 The keyword void simply tells the compiler that main( ) does not return a value.
 A Java program will be compiled with no error even if it does not contain a main( )
method in any of the classes present in it. However, the interpreter java would report
an error because it would unable to find the main() method.
 In main(), there is only one parameter String args[]. Here String is a class and
args is array of instances of the class String. Here, args receives any command-line
arguments present when the program is executed.

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 16
  A program may have many classes, out of which only one of which will need to have a
main() method to get things started.
 System is a class in the java.lang package.
 out is a static member of the System class, and is an instance of
java.io.PrintStream . out is the output stream connected to the console.
 println( ) is a method of java.io.PrintStream. This method is overloaded to
print message to output destination, which is typically a console or file.
 The relation between System class and PrintStream class is HAS-A relation. Here
System class HAS-A PrintStream class. To understand the relation we need to
understand the following program.
class A
{
void display()
{
System.out.println("this is display method");
}

class B

{
static A ob=new A();
}

class demo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
B.ob.display();
}
}
 It prints this is display method. B.ob.display() is just like
System.out.println(). A object is created in B class. PrintStream class object
is created in System class. ob is static object reference of A class. out also static
reference of PrintStream class.
 All statements in Java end with a semicolon.
Different ways of writing a java program:
There are many ways to write a java program. The modifications that can be done in a java
program are given below:
1) By changing sequence of the modifiers, method prototype is not changed.
static public void main(String args[])
2) Subscript notation in java array can be used after type, before variable or after
variable:
public static void main(String []args)
public static void main(String args[])
3) We can provide variable arguments support to main method by passing 3 ellipses
(dots).
public static void main(String... args)
4) Having semicolon at the end of class in java is optional.
Resolving an error "javac is not recognized as an internal or external command"

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 17
 If there occurs a problem like displayed in the below figure, you need to set path. Since
DOS doesn't know javac or java, we need to set path. Path is not required in such a case
if you save your program inside the jdk/bin folder. But its good approach to set path.

How to set path in Java:

There are 2 ways to set java path:
1) How to set Temporary Path of JDK in Windows
To set the temporary path of JDK, you need to follow following steps:
 Open command prompt
 Copy the path of jdk/bin directory
 Write in command prompt: set path=copied_path.
For example:
set path=C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_23\bin
2) How to set Permanent Path of JDK in Windows
For setting the permanent path of JDK, you need to follow these steps:
Go to MyComputer properties  advanced tab  environment variables 
new tab of user variable  write path in variable name  write path of bin
folder in variable value  ok  ok  ok
3) Setting Java Path in Linux
Setting path in Linux OS is same as setting path in the Windows OS. But here
we use export tool rather than set. To set path in Linux OS:
export PATH=$PATH:/home/jdk1.6.01/bin/
Note that, we have installed the JDK in the home directory under Root (/home).
What happens at compile time?
At compile time, java file is compiled by Java Compiler (It does not interact with OS)
and converts the java code into bytecode.

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 18
 What happens at run time?
At runtime, following steps are performed:

Classloader: is the subsystem of JVM that is used to load class files.

Bytecode Verifier: checks the code fragments for illegal code that can violate
access right to objects.
Interpreter: read bytecode stream then execute the instructions.
Can you save a java source file by a name other than the class name?
Yes, but after compilation it will create a .class file using the class name.

To compile: javac Hard.java

To run: java Simple

Can you have multiple classes in a java source file?

Yes, like the figure given below illustrates:

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 19
 To compile: javac D.java
To run: java C [Assuming class C contains the main method.]
4.12. Difference between JDK, JRE and JVM:
JVM:
 JVM (Java Virtual Machine) is not a machine, it is a program.
 JVM is an abstract machine. It is a specification that provides runtime environment in
which java bytecode can be executed.
 JVMs are available for many hardware and software platforms (i.e. JVM is platform
dependent).
 JVMs are available for many hardware and software platforms. JVM, JRE and JDK are
platform dependent because configuration of each OS differs. But, Java is platform
independent. There are three notions of the JVM: specification, implementation, and
instance.
 The JVM performs following main tasks:
1. Loads code
2. Verifies code
3. Executes code
4. Provides runtime environment
 JVM provides definitions for the:
1. Memory area
2. Class file format
3. Register set
4. Garbage-collected heap
5. Fatal error reporting etc.
JRE:
 JRE is an acronym for Java Runtime Environment. It is used to provide runtime
environment. It is the implementation of JVM. It physically exists. It contains set of
libraries plus other files that JVM uses at runtime.
 Implementation of JVMs are also actively released by other companies besides Sun
Micro Systems.
JDK:
 JDK is an acronym for Java Development Kit. It physically exists. It contains JRE plus
development tools.

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 20
 4.13. Second Short Java Program:
Program:
To write another simple Java program, open notepad or (Notepad++) and write the following
simple program as displayed below:
class Second{
public static void main(String args[]){
int num; // declaration of variable num
num = 100; // variable num is assigned with a value 100
System.out.println(“This is num: “ + num);
num = num * 2;
System.out.print("The value of num * 2 is ");
System.out.println(num);
}
}
Output: This is num: 100
The value of num * 2 is 200
NOTE:
 Variable declaration:
Syntax: data-type var-name.
Example: int num;
 In the first println( ) statement num is first converted from an integer into its string
equivalent and then concatenated with the string that precedes it. We can join together
as many items as we want within a single println( ) statement.
 The print() method is just like println(), except that it does not output a new line
character after each call.
5. UNDERSTANDING EVERY TERM OF JAVA PROGRAM:
5.1. Tokens
Tokens are the various Java program elements which are identified by the compiler. A token
is the smallest element of a program that is meaningful to the compiler. Tokens supported in
Java include keywords, variables, constants, special characters, operators etc.

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 21
 When you compile a program, the compiler scans the text in your source code and extracts
individual tokens. While tokenizing the source file, the compiler recognizes and
subsequently removes white spaces (spaces, tabs, newline and form feeds) and the text
enclosed within comments.
5.2 Keywords: Keywords are the reserve words whose meanings cannot be changed. Here is a list
of keywords in the Java programming language:
abstract continue for new switch
assert default goto package synchronized
boolean do if private this
break double implements protected throw
byte else import public throws
case enum instanceof return transient
catch extends int short try
char final interface static void
class finally long strictfp volatile
const float native super while
You cannot use any of the following as identifiers in your programs. The keywords const
and goto are reserved, even though they are not currently used. True, false, and null might
seem like keywords, but they are actually literals; you cannot use them as identifiers in your
programs.
5.3 Identifiers: Identifiers are the names of variables, methods, classes, packages and interfaces.
Unlike literals they are not the things themselves, just ways of referring to them. In the First.java
program, First, String, args, main and println are identifiers.
Rules for creating identifiers:
 Should be single word. That is spaces are not allowed.
Example: mangoprice is valid but mango price is not valid.
 Should start with a letter (alphabet) or underscore or $ symbol.
Example: price, _price and $price are valid identifiers.
 Should not be a keyword of Java as keyword carries special meaning to the compiler.
Example: class or void etc.
 Should not start with a digit but digit can be in the middle or at the end.
Example: 5mangoescost is not valid and mango5cost and mangocost5 are valid.
 Length of an identifier in Java can be of 65,535 characters and all are significant.
 Identifiers are case-sensitive. That is both mango and Mango are treated differently.
JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 22
  Can contain all uppercase letters or lowercase letters or a mixture.
Note: Always choose the identifier a meaningful word. Suppose you would like to store the
number of mangoes in the code, write as
int numberOfMangoes = 10; instead of int x =10;
5.4 Variables: Variable is name of reserved area allocated in memory. In other words, it is a name
of memory location. It is a combination of "vary + able" that means its value can be changed.
int data=50;//Here data is variable
There are three types of variables in java:
1. local variable: A variable declared inside the method is called local variable.
2. instance variable: A variable declared inside the class but outside the method, is called
instance variable . It is not declared as static.
3. static variable: A variable which is declared as static is called static variable. It cannot
be local.
Example:
class A{
int data=50;//instance variable
static int m=100;//static variable
void method(){
int n=90;//local variable
}
}//end of class

5.5 Literals: Any constant value which can be assigned to the variable is called as literal/constant.
// Here 100 is a constant/literal.
int x = 100;
The following are different types of literals:
1. Integer Literal: For Integral data types (byte, short, int, long), we can specify literals in 4
ways:
a) Decimal literals (Base 10): In this form the allowed digits are 0-9.
int x = 107;
b) Octal literals (Base 8): In this form the allowed digits are 0-7.The octal number should
be prefix with 0.
int x = 0146;
c) Hexa-decimal literals (Base 16): In this form the allowed digits are 0-9 and characters
are a-f. We can use both uppercase and lowercase characters. As we know that java is a
case-sensitive programming language but here java is not case-sensitive. The hexa-
decimal number should be prefix with 0X or 0x.
int x = 0X123Face;
d) Binary literals: From 1.7 onward we can specify literals value even in binary form
also, allowed digits are 0 and 1. Literals value should be prefixed with 0b or 0B.
int x = 0b1111;
2. Character Literal: For char data types we can specify literals in 4 ways:
a) Single quote: We can specify literal to char data type as single character within single
quote.
char ch = 'a';
b) Char literal as Integral literal: We can specify char literal as integral literal which
represents Unicode value of the character and that integral literals can be specified
either in Decimal, Octal and Hexadecimal forms. But the allowed range is 0 to 65535
JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 23
 char ch = 062;
c) Unicode Representation: We can specify char literals in Unicode representation
‘\uxxxx’. Here xxxx represents 4 hexadecimal numbers.
char ch = '\u0061';// Here \u0061 represent a.
d) Escape Sequence: Every escape character can be specify as char literals
char ch = '\n';
3. String literal: Any sequence of characters within double quotes is treated as String literals.
String s = "Hello";
String literals may not contain un-escaped newline or linefeed characters. However, the Java
compiler will evaluate compile time expressions, so the following String expression results
in a string with three lines of text:
Example: String text = "This is a String literal\n" + "which spans not one and not two\n"+
"but three lines of text.\n";
4. boolean literal: Only two values are allowed for Boolean literals i.e. true and false.
boolean b = true;
5.6 Data Types: Data types represent the different values to be stored in the variable. In java, there
are two types of data types:
a) Primitive data types: There are eight primitive datatypes supported by Java. Primitive
datatypes are predefined by the language and named by a keyword. These primitive data types
are put into the following four groups:
 Integers: This group includes byte, short, int, long, which are whole valued signed (no
unsigned in Java) numbers.
 Floating-point numbers: This group includes float and double, which represent numbers
with fractional precision.
 Characters: This group includes char, which represents symbols in a character set like
letters and numbers.
 Boolean: This group includes boolean, which is a special type for representing true/false
values.
The eight primitive data types in Java are:
byte
 Byte data type is an 8-bit signed two's complement integer
 Minimum value is -128 (-27)
 Maximum value is 127 (inclusive)(27 -1)
 Default value is 0
 Byte data type is used to save space in large arrays, mainly in place of integers, since
a byte is four times smaller than an integer.
 Example: byte a = 100, byte b = -50
 The byte data type can be useful for saving memory in large arrays, where the
memory savings actually matters. They can also be used in place of int where their
limits help to clarify your code; the fact that a variable's range is limited can serve as
a form of documentation.
short
 short data type is a 16-bit signed two's complement integer
 Minimum value is -32,768 (-2^15)
 Maximum value is 32,767 (inclusive) (2^15 -1)
 short data type can also be used to save memory as byte data type. A short is 2 times
smaller than an integer.
 Default value is 0.
 Example: short s = 10000, short r = -20000
JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 24
 int
 int data type is a 32-bit signed two's complement integer.
 Minimum value is - 2,147,483,648 (-2^31)
 Maximum value is 2,147,483,647(inclusive) (2^31 -1)
 Integer is generally used as the default data type for integral values unless there is a
concern about memory.
 The default value is 0.
 Example: int a = 100000, int b = -200000
long
 Long data type is a 64-bit signed two's complement integer
 Minimum value is -9,223,372,036,854,775,808(-2^63)
 Maximum value is 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 (inclusive)(2^63 -1)
 This type is used when a wider range than int is needed
 Default value is 0L.
 Example: long a = 100000L, long b = -200000L
float
 Float data type is a single-precision 32-bit IEEE-754 floating point
 Minimum value is 1.4e045
 Maximum value is 3.4e+038
 Float is mainly used to save memory in large arrays of floating point numbers
 Default value is 0.0f
 Example: float f1 = 234.5f

double
 double data type is a double-precision 64-bit IEEE-754 floating point
 Minimum value is 4.9e324
 Maximum value is 1.8e+308
 This data type is generally used as the default data type for decimal values, generally
the default choice.
 Default value is 0.0d
 Example: double d1 = 123.4
boolean
 boolean data type represents one bit of information
 The values of a boolean type variable are either true or false
 There are only two possible values: true and false
 This data type is used for simple flags that track true/false conditions
 Default value is false
 Example: boolean one = true
char
 char data type is a single 16-bit Unicode character
 Minimum value is '\u0000' (or 0)
 Maximum value is '\uffff' (or 65,535 inclusive)
 char data type is used to store any character
 Example: char letterA = 'A'.
 Although char is designed to hold Unicode characters, it can also be used as an
integer type on which you can perform arithmetic operations. For example you can
add two character variables, or increment the value of a character variable.
NOTE: Because of Java’s portability requirement, all data types have a strictly defined range. For
example int is always 32 bits, regardless of the particular platform.
JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 25
 b) Non-primitive (Reference/Object Data Types) data types
 Reference variables are created using defined constructors of the classes. They are used
to access objects. These variables are declared to be of a specific type that cannot be
changed. For example, Employee, Puppy, etc.
 Class objects and various type of array variables come under reference data type.
 Default value of any reference variable is null.
 A reference variable can be used to refer any object of the declared type or any
compatible type.
 Example: Animal animal = new Animal("giraffe");

5.7 Escape Sequences: Java language supports few special escape sequences for String and char
literals as well. They are:

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 26
 Notation Character represented

\n Newline (0x0a)

\r Carriage return (0x0d)

\f Formfeed (0x0c)

\b Backspace (0x08)

\s Space (0x20)

\t tab

\" Double quote

\' Single quote

\\ backslash

\ddd Octal character (ddd)

\uxxxx Hexadecimal UNICODE character (xxxx)

5.8 Unicode System: Unicode is a universal international standard character encoding that is
capable of representing most of the world's written languages.
Before Unicode, there were many language standards:
 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) for the United States.
 ISO 8859-1 for Western European Language.
 KOI-8 for Russian.
 GB18030 and BIG-5 for chinese, and so on.
This caused two problems:
1. A particular code value corresponds to different letters in the various language standards.
2. The encodings for languages with large character sets have variable length. Some common
characters are encoded as single bytes, other require two or more byte.
To solve these problems, a new language standard was developed i.e. Unicode System. In unicode,
character holds 2 byte, so java also uses 2 byte for characters.
Lowest value: \u0000, Highest value: \uFFFF

5.9 Operators: Java provides a rich set of operators to manipulate variables. We can divide all the
Java operators into the following groups:
 Arithmetic Operators
 Relational Operators
 Bitwise Operators
 Logical Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Miscellaneous Operators

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 27
 5.9.1 Arithmetic Operators: Arithmetic operators are used in mathematical expressions in the
same way that they are used in algebra. The following table lists the arithmetic operators:
Assume integer variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then
Operator Description Example

+ (Addition) Adds values on either side of the operator. A + B will give 30

Subtracts right-hand operand from left-

- (Subtraction) hand operand. A - B will give -10

Multiplies values on either side of the

* (Multiplication) A * B will give 200
operator.

Divides left-hand operand by right-hand

/ (Division) B / A will give 2
operand.

Divides left-hand operand by right-hand

% (Modulus) operand and returns remainder. B % A will give 0

++ (Increment) Increases the value of operand by 1. B++ gives 21

-- (Decrement) Decreases the value of operand by 1. B-- gives 19

NOTE:
1. Unlike in C, the modulus operator can be applied to floating-point types as well as integer
types.
Example:
class First{
public static void main(String args[]){

int x=42;
float y=42.25f;

System.out.println("x mod 10: "+ x%10);

System.out.println("y mod 10: "+ y%10);
}
}
Output:
X mod 10: 2
Y mod 10: 2.25

2. Operator + is also used for string concatenation.

Example:
class TestStringConcatenation{
public static void main(String args[]){
String s="Sachin"+" Tendulkar";
System.out.println(s);
}

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 28
 }
Output:
Sachin Tendulkar
3. The string concatenation operator can concat not only string but primitive values also.
Example:
class TestStringConcatenation{
public static void main(String args[]){
String s=40+40+"Sachin"+40+40;
System.out.println(s);
}
}
Output:
80Sachin4040

Example: Unary Operators ++, - -

class OperatorExample{
public static void main(String args[]){
int x=10;
System.out.println(x++);//10 (11)
System.out.println(++x);//12
System.out.println(x--);//12 (11)
System.out.println(--x);//10
}
}
Output:
10
12
12
10
5.9.2 Relational Operators: There following are the relational operators supported by Java
language:
Assume integer variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then
Operator Description Example

Checks if the values of two operands are

= = (equal to) equal or not, if yes then condition becomes (A == B) is not true.
true.

Checks if the values of two operands are

!= (not equal to) equal or not, if values are not equal then (A != B) is true.
condition becomes true.

Checks if the value of left operand is

> (greater than) greater than the value of right operand, if (A > B) is not true.
yes then condition becomes true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less

< (less than) than the value of right operand, if yes then (A < B) is true.
condition becomes true.

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 29
 Checks if the value of left operand is
>= (greater than or greater than or equal to the value of right
(A >= B) is not true.
equal to) operand, if yes then condition becomes
true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less

<= (less than or
than or equal to the value of right operand, (A <= B) is true.
equal to)
if yes then condition becomes true.

5.9.3 Bitwise Operators: Java defines several bitwise operators, which can be applied to the
integer types, long, int, short, char, and byte.
Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit-by-bit operation. Assume if a = 60 and b = 13;
now in binary format they will be as follows:
a = 0011 1100
b = 0000 1101
-----------------
a & b = 0000 1100
a | b = 0011 1101
a^b = 0011 0001
~a = 1100 0011
The following table lists the bitwise operators:
Assume integer variable A holds 60 and variable B holds 13 then
Operator Description Example

(A & B) will
Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the result if it exists in
& (bitwise and) give 12 which is
both operands.
0000 1100

(A | B) will give
Binary OR Operator copies a bit if it exists in either
| (bitwise or) 61 which is
operand.
0011 1101

(A ^ B) will
^ (bitwise Binary XOR Operator copies the bit if it is set in one
give 49 which is
XOR) operand but not both.
0011 0001

(~A) will give -

61 which is
1100 0011 in 2's
~ (bitwise Binary Ones Complement Operator is unary and has the
complement
compliment) effect of 'flipping' bits.
form due to a
signed binary
number.

Binary Left Shift Operator. The left operands value is A << 2 will give
<< (left shift) moved left by the number of bits specified by the right 240 which is
operand. 1111 0000

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 30
 >> (right shift) Binary Right Shift Operator. The left operands value is
A >> 2 will give
moved right by the number of bits specified by the right
15 which is
arithmetic shift operand.
1111
right

>>> (zero fill Shift right zero fill operator. The left operands value is
right shift) moved right by the number of bits specified by the right
operand and shifted values are filled up with zeros.
A >>>2 will
logical shift
give 15 which is
right For positive number, >> and >>> works same.
0000 1111
Unsigned right For negative number, >>> changes parity bit (MSB) to 0
shift

Example: Operator ~
class OperatorExample{
public static void main(String args[]){
int a=10;
int b=-10;
System.out.println(~a);//-11 (minus of total positive value
which starts from 0)
System.out.println(~b);//9 (positive of total minus, positive
starts from 0) }
}
Output:
-11
9
Example: Operator <<
class OperatorExample{
public static void main(String args[]){
System.out.println(10<<2);//10*2^2=10*4=40
System.out.println(10<<3);//10*2^3=10*8=80
System.out.println(20<<2);//20*2^2=20*4=80
System.out.println(15<<4);//15*2^4=15*16=240}
}
Output:
40
80
80
240
Example: Operator >> vs >>>
class OperatorExample{
public static void main(String args[]){
//For positive number, >> and >>> works same
System.out.println(20>>2);
System.out.println(20>>>2);
//For negative number, >>> changes parity bit (MSB) to 0
System.out.println(-20>>2);
System.out.println(-20>>>2);
}
}

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 31
Output:
5
5
-5
1073741819
5.9.4 Logical Operators: The following table lists the logical operators:
Assume Boolean variables A holds true and variable B holds false, then
Operator Description Example

Called Logical AND operator. If both the

&& (logical and) operands are non-zero, then the condition (A && B) is false
becomes true.

Called Logical OR Operator. If any of the

|| (logical or) two operands are non-zero, then the (A || B) is true
condition becomes true.

Called Logical NOT Operator. Use to

reverses the logical state of its operand. If
! (logical not) !(A && B) is true
a condition is true then Logical NOT
operator will make false.

Example: Operator Logical || and Bitwise |

class OperatorExample{
public static void main(String args[]){
int a=10;
int b=5;
int c=20;
System.out.println(a>b||a<c);//true || true = true
System.out.println(a>b|a<c);//true | true = true
//|| vs |
System.out.println(a>b||a++<c);//true || true = true
System.out.println(a);//10 because second condition is not
checked
System.out.println(a>b|a++<c);//true | true = true
System.out.println(a);//11 because second condition is
checked
}
}
Output:
true
true
true
10
true
11
NOTE: The logical || operator doesn't check second condition if first condition is true. It checks
second condition only if first one is false. The bitwise | operator always checks both conditions
whether first condition is true or false.

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 32
 5.9.5 Assignment Operators: Following are the assignment operators supported by Java language:
Operator Description Example

Simple assignment operator. Assigns

C = A + B will assign
= values from right side operands to left side
value of A + B into C
operand.

Add AND assignment operator. It adds

C += A is equivalent
+= right operand to the left operand and assign
to C = C + A
the result to left operand.

Subtract AND assignment operator. It

subtracts right operand from the left C -= A is equivalent to
-=
operand and assign the result to left C=C–A
operand.

Multiply AND assignment operator. It

multiplies right operand with the left C *= A is equivalent to
*=
operand and assign the result to left C=C*A
operand.

/= Divide AND assignment operator. It

C /= A is equivalent to
divides left operand with the right operand
C=C/A
and assign the result to left operand.

Modulus AND assignment operator. It

C %= A is equivalent
%= takes modulus using two operands and
to C = C % A
assign the result to left operand.

C <<= 2 is same as C
<<= Left shift AND assignment operator.
= C << 2

C >>= 2 is same as C
>>= Right shift AND assignment operator.
= C >> 2

C &= 2 is same as C =
&= Bitwise AND assignment operator.
C&2

bitwise exclusive OR and assignment C ^= 2 is same as C =

^= operator. C^2

bitwise inclusive OR and assignment C |= 2 is same as C =

|= operator. C|2

Example: Adding short

public class Test {
public static void main(String args[]) {
short a=10;

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 33
 short b=10;
a=a+b;//Compile time error because 10+10=20 now int
System.out.println(a);
}
}
Output:
Compile time error
Example: Adding short
public class Test {
public static void main(String args[]) {
short a=10;
short b=10;
a=(short)(a+b);//20 which is int now converted to short
System.out.println(a);
}
}
Output:
20
NOTE: Assignment operator (=) allows us to create a chain of assignments.
Example: int x, y, z;
x = y = z =10; // set x, y, and z to 10.

5.9.6 Miscellaneous Operators: There are few other operators supported by Java Language.
a) Conditional Operator ( ? : ): Conditional operator is also known as the ternary operator.
This operator consists of three operands and is used to evaluate Boolean expressions. The goal
of the operator is to decide, which value should be assigned to the variable. The operator is
written as:
variable x = (expression) ? value if true : value if false
Example:
public class Test {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int a, b;
a = 10;
b = (a == 1) ? 20: 30;
System.out.println( "Value of b is : " + b );

b = (a == 10) ? 20: 30;

System.out.println( "Value of b is : " + b );
}
}
Output:
Value of b is : 30
Value of b is : 20
b) instanceof Operator: This operator is used only for object reference variables. The operator
checks whether the object is of a particular type (class type or interface type). instanceof
operator is written as:
(Object/reference variable) instanceof (class/interface type)
If the object referred by the variable on the left side of the operator passes the IS-A check for
the class/interface type on the right side, then the result will be true.
JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 34
 Example:
public class Test {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String name = "James";
// following will return true since name is type of String
boolean result = name instanceof String;
System.out.println( result );
}
}
Output:
true
5.9.7 Precedence of Java Operators: Operator precedence determines the grouping of terms in an
expression. This affects how an expression is evaluated. Here, operators with the highest
precedence appear at the top of the table, those with the lowest appear at the bottom. Within an
expression, higher precedence operators will be evaluated first.
Category Operator Associativity

Separators (), [], . (dot operator) Left to right

Postfix ++,   Right to left

Prefix, Unary ++,  , ~,!, +(unary), (unary), type-cast Right to left

Multiplicative *, /, % Left to right

Additive +, - Left to right

Shift >>, >>>, << Left to right

Relational, Special >, >=, <, <=, instanceof Left to right

Equality = =, != Left to right

Bitwise AND & Left to right

Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right

Bitwise OR | Left to right

Logical AND && Left to right

Logical OR || Left to right

Conditional ?: Right to left

Arrow -> Left to right

Assignment >= += -= *= /= %= >>= <<= &= ^= |= Right to left

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 35
 5.10 Type Conversion: When you assign value of one data type to another, the two types might
not be compatible with each other. If the data types are compatible, then Java will perform the
conversion automatically known as Automatic Type Conversion and if not then they need to be
casted or converted explicitly.
a) Widening or Automatic (Implicit) Type Conversion or coercion
Widening conversion takes place when two data types are automatically converted. This
happens when:
 The two data types are compatible.
 The destination type is larger than the source type.
For Example, in java the numeric data types are compatible with each other but no automatic
conversion is supported from numeric type to char or boolean. Also, char and boolean are not
compatible with each other.

Example:
class Test{
public static void main(String[] args){
int i = 100;
//automatic type conversion
long l = i;
//automatic type conversion
float f = l;
System.out.println("Int value "+i);
System.out.println("Long value "+l);
System.out.println("Float value "+f);
}
}
Output:
Int value 100
Long value 100
Float value 100.0
b) Narrowing or Explicit Conversion.
If we want to assign a value of larger data type to a smaller data type we perform explicit type
casting or narrowing.
 This is useful for incompatible data types where automatic conversion cannot be done.
 Here, target-type specifies the desired type to convert the specified value to.

char and number are not compatible with each other. Let’s see when we try to convert one
into other.

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 36
 Example:
//Java program to illustrate incompatible data
// type for explicit type conversion
class Test
{
public static void main(String[] argv)
{
char ch = 'c';
int num = 88;
ch = num; //Correct code: ch = (char)num;
System.out.println(ch);
}
}
Output:
7: error: incompatible types: possible lossy conversion from int to char
ch = num;
^
1 error
Example:
//Java program to illustrate incompatible data
// type for explicit type conversion
class Test
{
public static void main(String[] argv)
{
double d = 100.04;
//explicit type casting
int i = (int)d;
System.out.println("Double value "+d);

//fractional part lost

System.out.println("Int value "+i);
}
}
Output:
Double value 100.04
Int value 100
While assigning value to byte type the fractional part is lost and is reduced to modulo 256(range of
byte).

Example:

//Java program to illustrate Conversion of int and double to byte

class Test
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
byte b;
int i = 257;
double d = 323.142;

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 37
 System.out.println("Conversion of int to byte.");
//i%256
b = (byte) i;
System.out.println("i = " + i + " b = " + b);
System.out.println("\nConversion of double to byte.");
//d%256
b = (byte) d;
System.out.println("d = " + d + " b= " + b);
}
}
Output:

Conversion of int to byte.

i = 257 b = 1

Conversion of double to byte.

d = 323.142 b = 67
Type promotion in Expressions:
While evaluating expressions, the intermediate value may exceed the range of operands and hence the
expression value will be promoted. Some conditions for type promotion are:
 Java automatically promotes each byte, short, or char operand to int when evaluating an
expression.
 If one operand is a long, float or double the whole expression is promoted to long, float or
double respectively.
The following code shows error:
byte b = 50;
b = b * 2; //error
The reason is first b (in bytes) is converted to int before multiplying with 2. After multiplication 100(in
integers) cannot be stored in b (in bytes). The correct code would be:
b = (byte) (b * 2);

Example:

//Java program to illustrate Type promotion in Expressions

class Test
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
byte b = 42;
char c = 'a';
short s = 1024;
int i = 50000;
float f = 5.67f;
double d = 0.1234;

// The Expression
double result = (f * b) + (i / c) - (d * s);

//Result after all the promotions are done

System.out.println("result = " + result);

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 38
 }
}
Output:
Result = 626.7784146484375
5.11 Java comments:
o Single Line Comment: The single line comment is used to comment only one line.
Syntax:
// This is single line comment
Example:
int i=10; //Here, i is a variable
o Multi Line Comment: The multi-line comment is used to comment multiple lines of code.
Syntax:
/*
This is multi line comment
*/
Example:
/*
My First Java Progam
Save this file with name “First.java”
*/
o Java Documentation Comment: The documentation comment is used to create
documentation API. To create documentation API, you need to use javadoc tool.
Syntax:
/**
This is documentation comment
*/
Example:
/** The Calculator class provides methods to get addition and
subtraction of given 2 numbers.*/
public class Calculator
{
/** The add() method returns addition of given numbers.*/
public static int add(int a, int b)
{
return a+b;
}

/** The sub() method returns subtraction of given numbers.*/

public static int sub(int a, int b)
{
return a-b;
}
}
After compilation create Documentation API by javadoc tool:
javadoc Calculator.java
Now, there will be HTML files created for your Calculator class in the current directory.
Open the HTML files and see the explanation of Calculator class provided through
documentation comment.
5.12 Control Structures: A control structure is a block of programming that analyses variables and
chooses a direction in which to go based on given parameters. The term flow control details the
direction the program takes (which way program control "flows"). Hence it is the basic decision-

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 39
making process in computing; flow control determines how a computer will respond when given
certain conditions and parameters.
If-else Statement:
The if statement is used to test the condition. It checks boolean condition: true or false. There are
various types of if statement in java.
 if statement
 if-else statement
 if-else-if ladder
 nested if statement
if Statement
The Java if statement tests the condition. It executes the if block if
condition is true.
Syntax:
if(condition){
//code to be executed
}
Example:
public class IfExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int age=20;
if(age>18){
System.out.print("Age is greater than 18");
}
}
}
Output:
Age is greater than 18
if-else Statement
The Java if-else statement also tests the condition. It executes the if block if condition is true otherwise
else block is executed.

Syntax:
if(condition){
//code if condition is true
}
else{
//code if condition is false
}
Example:
public class IfElseExample {
public static void main(String[]
args){
int number=13;
if(number%2==0){
System.out.println("even
number");
}
else

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 40
 {
System.out.println("odd number");
}
}
}
Output:
odd number
if-else-if ladder Statement
The if-else-if ladder statement executes one condition from multiple statements.
Syntax:
if(condition1){
//code to be executed if condition1 is true
}
else if(condition2){
//code to be executed if condition2 is true
}
else if(condition3){
//code to be executed if condition3 is true
}
...
else{
//code to be executed if all the conditions are false
}
Example:
public class IfElseIfExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int marks=65;

if(marks<50){
System.out.println("fail");
JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 41
 }
else if(marks>=50 && marks<60){
System.out.println("D grade");
}
else if(marks>=60 && marks<70){
System.out.println("C grade");
}
else if(marks>=70 && marks<80){
System.out.println("B grade");
}
else if(marks>=80 && marks<90){
System.out.println("A grade");
}
else if(marks>=90 && marks<100){
System.out.println("A+ grade");
}
else{
System.out.println("Invalid!");
}
}
}
Output:
C grade
Switch Statement:
The Java switch statement executes one statement from multiple conditions. It is like if-else-if ladder
statement.
Syntax:
switch(expression){
case value1:
//code to be executed;
break; //optional
case value2:
//code to be executed;
break; //optional
......

default:
code to be executed if all cases are not matched;
Example:
public class SwitchExample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int number=20;
switch(number)
{
case 10: System.out.println("10");break;
case 20: System.out.println("20");break;
case 30: System.out.println("30");break;
default:System.out.println("Not in 10,20or30");

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 42
 }
}
}
Output:
20
Note: The java switch statement is fall-through. It means it executes all statement after first match if
break statement is not used with switch cases.
Example:
public class SwitchExample2 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int number=20;
switch(number){
case 10: System.out.println("10");
case 20: System.out.println("20");
case 30: System.out.println("30");
default: System.out.println("Not in 10, 20 or 30");
}
}
}

Output:
20
30
Not in 10, 20 or 30
Loops in Java
In programming languages, loops are used to execute a set of instructions/functions repeatedly when
some conditions become true. There are three types of loops in java.
 for loop
 while loop
 do-while loop
1. for Loop
The Java for loop is used to iterate a part of the program several times. If the number of
iteration is fixed, it is recommended to use for loop.
There are three types of for loops in java.
 Simple For Loop
 For-each or Enhanced For Loop
 Labeled For Loop
Simple For Loop
The simple for loop is same as C/C++. We can initialize variable, check condition and
increment/decrement value.
Syntax:
for(initialization; condition; incr/decr){
//code to be executed
}

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 43
 Example:
public class ForExample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
for(int i=1;i<=10;i++)
{
System.out.println(i);
}
}
}
Output:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
for-each Loop
The for-each loop is used to traverse array or collection
in java. It is easier to use than simple for loop because we
don't need to increment value and use subscript notation.
It works on elements basis not index. It returns element one by one in the defined
variable.
Syntax:
for(Type var:array){
//code to be executed
}
Example:
public class ForEachExample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int arr[]={12,23,44,56,78};
for(int i:arr)
{
System.out.println(i);
}
}
}
Output:
12
23
44
56
78

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 44
 Labeled For Loop
We can have name of each for loop. To do so, we use label before the for loop. It is useful if
we have nested for loop so that we can break/continue specific for loop. Normally, break and
continue keywords breaks/continues the inner most for loop only.
Syntax:
labelname:
for(initialization;condition;incr/decr){
//code to be executed
}
Example:
public class LabeledForExample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
aa:
for(int i=1;i<=3;i++)
{
bb:
for(int j=1;j<=3;j++)
{
if(i==2 && j==2)
{
break aa;
}
System.out.println(i+" "+j);
}
}
}
}
Output:
1 1
1 2
1 3
2 1
NOTE: If you use break bb; instead of break aa;, it will break inner loop only which is
the default behaviour of any loop. In that case the output will be:
Output:
1 1
1 2
1 3
2 1
3 1
3 2
3 3
Infinitive For Loop
If you use two semicolons ;; in the for loop, it will be infinitive for loop.
Syntax:
for(;;){
//code to be executed
}

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 45
 Example:
public class ForExample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
for(;;)
{
System.out.println("infinitive loop");
}
}
}
Output:
infinitive loop
infinitive loop
infinitive loop
infinitive loop
infinitive loop
...
...
...
infinitive loop
2. while Loop
The Java while loop is used to iterate a part of the program
several times. If the number of iteration is not fixed, it is
recommended to use while loop.
Syntax:
while(condition){
//code to be executed
}
Example:
public class WhileExample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int i=1;
while(i<=10)
{
System.out.println(i);
i++;
}
}
}
Output:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 46
 8
9
10
Infinitive while Loop
If you pass true in the while loop, it will be infinitive while loop.
Syntax:
while(true){
//code to be executed
}
Example:
public class WhileExample2 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
while(true){
System.out.println("infinitive while loop");
}
}
}
Output:
Infinitive while loop
infinitive while loop
infinitive while loop
infinitive while loop
infinitive while loop
ctrl+c
3. do-while Loop
The Java do-while loop is used to iterate a part of the
program several times. If the number of iteration is not fixed
and you must have to execute the loop at least once, it is
recommended to use do-while loop. The Java do-while loop is executed at least once because
condition is checked after loop body.
Syntax:
do{
//code to be executed
}while(condition);
Example:
public class DoWhileExample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int i=1;
do{
System.out.println(i);
i++;
}while(i<=10);
}
}
Output:
1
2
3
JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 47
 4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Infinitive do-while Loop
If you pass true in the do-while loop, it will be infinitive do-while loop.
Syntax:
do{
//code to be executed
}while(true);
Example:
public class DoWhileExample2
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
do{
System.out.println("infinitive do while loop");
}while(true);
}
}
Output:
infinitive do while loop
infinitive do while loop
infinitive do while loop
ctrl+c
break Statement
 When a break statement is encountered inside a loop, the loop is immediately terminated and
the program control resumes at the next statement following the loop.
 The Java break is used to break loop or switch statement. It breaks the current flow of the
program at specified condition. In case of inner loop, it breaks only inner loop.
Syntax:
jump-statement;
break;
Example:
public class BreakExample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
for(int i=1;i<=10;i++)
{
if(i==5)
break;
System.out.println(i);
}
}
}
Output:
JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 48
 1
2
3
4
Note: It breaks inner loop only if you use break statement inside the inner loop.
Example:
public class BreakExample2
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
for(int i=1;i<=3;i++)
{
for(int j=1;j<=3;j++)
{
if(i==2&&j==2)
break;
System.out.println(i+" "+j);
}
}
}
}
Output:
11
12
13
21
31
32
33
continue Statement
 The continue statement is used in loop control structure when you need to immediately jump to
the next iteration of the loop. It can be used with for loop or while loop.
 The Java continue statement is used to continue loop. It continues the current flow of the
program and skips the remaining code at specified condition. In case of inner loop, it continues
only inner loop.
Syntax:
jump-statement;
continue;
Example:
public class BreakExample
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
for(int i=1;i<=10;i++)
{
if(i==5)
continue;
System.out.println(i);
}
}

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 49
 }
Output:
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10
Note: It continues inner loop only if you use continue statement inside the inner loop.
Example:
public class BreakExample2
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
for(int i=1;i<=3;i++)
{
for(int j=1;j<=3;j++)
{
if(i==2&&j==2)
continue;
}
System.out.println(i+" "+j);
}
}
}
Output:
11
12
13
21
23
31
32
33
5.11 Arrays: An array is a container object that
holds a fixed number of values of a single type.
The length of an array is established when the
array is created. After creation, its length is fixed.
Each item in an array is called an element, and
each element is accessed by its numerical index.
Numbering begins with 0.
Advantage of Java Array
 Code Optimization: It makes the code optimized; we can retrieve or sort the data easily.
 Random access: We can get any data located at any index position.
Disadvantage of Java Array
 Size Limit: We can store only fixed size of elements in the array. It doesn't grow its size at
runtime. To solve this problem, collection framework is used in java.
One-Dimensional Arrays:

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 50
  To create a one-dimensional array, we have to create an array variable of the required type.
 The general form of array declaration is:
type var-name[];
or type[] var-name;
or type []var-name;
 Note that in array declaration, only array variable is created. At this point no array actually
exists.
 To link the array variable with an actual, physical array we need to allocate memory space
using a special operator named as new.
 The general form of new is as follows:
array-var = new type [size];
 The element in the array allocated by new will automatically be initialized to zero (for numeric
types), false (for boolean) and null (fore reference types).
 In Java all arrays are dynamically allocated.
 It is possible to combine the declaration of array variable with the allocation of array itself as
shown below:
type var-name[]= new type [size];
 We can declare, instantiate and initialize the java array together by:
type var-name[]= {element1, element2, . . .};
Example:
class Testarray
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int a[]=new int[5];//declaration and instantiation
a[0]=10;//initialization
a[1]=20;
a[2]=70;
a[3]=40;
a[4]=50;

//printing array
for(int i=0;i<a.length;i++)//length is the property of array
System.out.println(a[i]);
}
}
Output:
10
20
70
40
50
Example:
class Testarray1
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
//declaration, instantiation and initialization
int a[]={33,3,4,50};

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 51
 //printing array
for(int i=0;i<a.length;i++)//length is the property of array
System.out.println(a[i]);

}
}
Output:
33
3
4
50
Passing Array to method:
We can pass the java array to method so that we can reuse the same logic on any array.
Example:
class Testarray2
{
static void min(int arr[])
{
int min=arr[0];
for(int i=1;i<arr.length;i++)
{
if(min>arr[i])
min=arr[i];
}
System.out.println(min);
}

public static void main(String args[])

{
int a[]={33,3,4,5};
min(a);//passing array to method

}
}
Output:
3
Copying Arrays:
The System class has an arraycopy method that we can use to efficiently copy data from one
array into another:
public static void arraycopy(Object src, int srcPos, Object dest, int destPos, int length)
Example:
class First
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
char[]copyFrom = {'d','e','c','a','f','f','e','i','n','a',
't','e','d' };
char[] copyTo = new char[7];
System.arraycopy(copyFrom, 2, copyTo, 0, 7);
System.out.println(copyTo);
}

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 52
 }
Output:
caffein

Multidimensional array:
 Multidimensional arrays are
actually array of arrays. In such
case, data is stored in row and
column based index (also known as
matrix form).
 The general form of array
declaration is:
dataType[][] arrayRefVar;
(or) dataType [][]arrayRefVar
(or) dataType arrayRefVar[][];
(or) dataType []arrayRefVar[];
 Example to instantiate Multidimensional Array:
int twoD[][] = new int[4][5];//4 row and 5 column
Example:
class Testarray3
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
//declaring and initializing 2D array
int arr[][]={{1,2,3},{2,4,5},{4,4,5}};

//printing 2D array
for(int i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(int j=0;j<3;j++)
{
System.out.print(arr[i][j]+" ");
}
System.out.println();
}
}
}
Output:
123
245
445
 When you allocate memory for a multidimensional array, you need only specify the memory
for the first (leftmost) dimension. We can allocate the remaining dimensions separately.
int twoD[][] = new int[4][];
twoD[0] = new int[5];
twoD[1] = new int[5];
twoD[2] = new int[5];
twoD[3] = new int[5];

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 53
  In Java we are allowed to allocate different number of columns in the rows. In that case it is
known as Jagged arrays. Jagged arrays are useful when dealing with a group of arrays of
different size.
int x[][] = new int[2][];
x[0] = new int[2];
x[1] = new int[3];

Class name of Java array:

 In java, array is an object. For array object, an proxy class is created whose name can be
obtained by getClass().getName() method on the object.
class First
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int arr[][]={4,4,5};
System.out.println(arr.getClass().getName());
}
}
Output:
[I ([ is for single dimensional array and I is for integer)

5.12 Taking Input from keyboard: In Java, there are different ways for reading input from the user:
1. Command Line Argument: The command line argument is the argument passed to a program
at the time when you run it. To access the command-line argument inside a java program is
quite easy, they are stored as string in String array passed to the args parameter of main()
method.
Example:
class cmd
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println(“No. of arguments:”+ args.length);

for(int i=0;i< args.length;i++)

{
System.out.println(args[i]);
}
}
}
Output:
To run: java cmd 10 20 30
No. of arguments: 3
10
20
30
Example:
public class Echo {
public static void main (String[] args) {
for (String s: args) {
System.out.println(s);
}

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 54
 }
}
Output:
To run: java Echo Silicon Institute of Technology
Silicon
Institute
of
Technology
2. Scanner Class: The main purpose of the Scanner class is to parse primitive types and strings
using regular expressions. The Java Scanner class breaks the input into tokens using a delimiter
that is whitespace by default. It provides many methods to read and parse various primitive
values. Convenient methods for parsing primitives (nextInt(), nextFloat(), …) from the
tokenized input.
The following is a list of commonly used Scanner class methods:

Method Description
public String next() it returns the next token from the scanner.
public String nextLine() it moves the scanner position to the next line and returns the value
as a string.
public byte nextByte() it scans the next token as a byte.
public short nextShort() it scans the next token as a short value.
public int nextInt() it scans the next token as an int value.
public long nextLong() it scans the next token as a long value.
public float nextFloat() it scans the next token as a float value.
public double nextDouble() it scans the next token as a double value.

Example:
import java.util.Scanner;
class First
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
// Using Scanner for Getting Input from User
Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);

String s = sc.nextLine();
System.out.println("You entered string "+s);

int a = sc.nextInt();
System.out.println("You entered integer "+a);

float b = sc.nextFloat();
System.out.println("You entered float "+b);
}
}
Input:
Silicon
5
13.4
Output:

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 55
 You entered integer Silicon
You entered integer 5
You entered float 13.4

Example:
import java.util.Scanner;
class ScannerTest
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Scanner sc=new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter your rollno");
int rollno=sc.nextInt();
System.out.println("Enter your name");
String name=sc.next();
System.out.println("Enter your fee");
double fee=sc.nextDouble();
System.out.println("Rollno:"+rollno+" name:"+name+"
fee:"+fee);
}
}
Output:
Enter your rollno
111
Enter your name
Ram
Enter your fee
450000
Rollno:111 name:Ram fee:450000

6. INTRODUCTION TO CLASS AND OBJECTS

6.1 Naming Conventions: By using standard Java naming conventions, you make your code easier to
read for yourself and for other programmers. Readability of Java program is very important. It
indicates that less time is spent to figure out what the code does. However, it is not forced to follow.
So, it is known as convention not rule.
Name Convention
should start with uppercase letter and be a noun e.g. String, Color,
class name
Button, System, Thread etc.
should start with uppercase letter and be an adjective e.g.
interface name
Runnable, Remote, ActionListener etc.
should start with lowercase letter and be a verb e.g.
method name
actionPerformed(), main(), print(), println() etc.
variable name should start with lowercase letter e.g. firstName, orderNumber etc.
package name should be in lowercase letter e.g. java, lang, sql, util etc.
Should be in uppercase letter. E.g. RED, YELLOW, MAX_PRIORITY
constants name
etc.

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 56
CamelCase in java naming conventions:
 Java follows camelcase syntax for naming the class, interface, method and variable.
 If name is combined with two words, second word will start with uppercase letter always e.g.
actionPerformed(), firstName, ActionEvent, ActionListener etc.
6.2 Class:
 Class defines a new data type. Once a class is defined, it can be used to create objects of that
type.
 A class is a template for an object and object is an instance of a class. It is a logical entity.
 While defining a class we declare its form and nature by specifying the data it contains and code
that operates on that data.
 A class is defined by use of the class keyword
 The general form of a class definition is:
class classname{
type instance-variable1;
type instance-variable2;
. . .
type instance-variableN;

type methodname1(parameter-list){
//body of method
}
type methodname2(parameter-list){
//body of method
}
. . .
type methodnameN(parameter-list){
//body of method
}
}
 The data or variables defined within a class but outside the method are called instance variables.
Instance variable doesn't get memory at compile time. It gets memory at run time when object
(instance) is created.
 A method is like function used to expose behavior of an object. The code is contained within
methods. The main advantage of the method is code reusability.
 Both variables and methods within a class are called members of the class.
 Each instance (object) of the class contains its own copy of these variables. Thus the data of one
object is separate and unique from the data for other.
 Example:
Class Box{
double width;
double height;
double depth;
}
 A class declaration only creates a template, it does not create and actual object.
 To create an object of Box class use the following code:
Box mybox = new Box();
 Every Box object will contain its own copies of the instance variables width, height and depth of
each instance variable defined by the class.
 To access the instance variables and methods within an object we need the dot(.) operator.
Example: mybox.height
JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 57
  We can put each class in separate files.
Program:
class Box
{
double width;
double height;
double depth;
}
class BoxDemo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Box mybox = new Box();
double vol;

mybox.width = 10;
mybox.height = 20;
mybox.depth = 15;

vol = mybox.width * mybox.height * mybox.depth;

System.out.println("Volume is " +vol);
}
}
Output:
Volumeis3000.0
 Changes to the instance variables of one object have no effect on the instance variable of
another.
Program:
class Box{
double width;
double height;
double depth;
}
class BoxDemo{
public static void main(String args[]){
Box mybox1 = new Box();
Box mybox2 = new Box();
double vol;

mybox1.width = 10;
mybox1.height = 20;
mybox1.depth = 15;

mybox2.width = 3;
mybox2.height = 6;
mybox2.depth = 9;

vol = mybox1.width * mybox1.height * mybox1.depth;

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 58
 System.out.println("Volume is " +vol);

vol = mybox2.width * mybox2.height * mybox2.depth;

System.out.println("Volume is " +vol);

}
}
Output:
Volume is 3000.0
Volume is 162.0
1.1 Object:
 Object is an instance of a class. Class is a template or blueprint from which objects are created.
So object is the instance (result) of a class.
 An object has three characteristics:
 state: represents data (value) of an object.
 behavior: represents the behavior (functionality) of an object such as deposit, withdraw etc.
 identity: Object identity is typically implemented via a unique ID. The value of the ID is
not visible to the external user. But, it is used internally by the JVM to identify each object
uniquely.
 Example: Pen is an object. Its name is Reynolds, color is white etc. known as its state. It is used
to write, so writing is its behavior.
 Object Definitions:
 Object is a real world entity.
 Object is a run time entity.
 Object is an entity which has state and behavior.
 Object is an instance of a class.
 We can create object of a class in the following steps:
 Declare a variable of the class type.
Box mybox;
 Acquire an actual, physical copy of the object and assign it to that variable.
mybox = new Box();

 The new operator dynamically (at run time) allocates memory for an object and returns a
reference (address) to it. All objects get memory in Heap memory area.
 Any attempt to use mybox before assigning any reference of object to it results a compile-time
error.
 In the above example Box() is a constructor of classBox. Any class name followed by
parentheses specifies the constructor of the class.
 A constructor defines what occurs when an object is created.
 In a class if no explicit constructor is defined then Java automatically supplies a default
constructor. Here Box() is the default constructor.
 A class creates a new data type that can be used to create objects.
JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 59
  A class creates a logical framework that defines the relationship between its members.
 When we declare an object of a class we are creating an instance of that class.
 Thus, a class is a logical construct and an object has physical reality.
 When we assign one object reference variable to another object reference variable, Java does not
create a copy of the object, it only make a copy of the reference. Thus any changes to the object
affect both object reference variables.
Example: Box b1 = new Box();
Box b2 = b1;

1.2 Methods:
 A method is a function that is written in a class. We do not have functions in Java. Whenever a
function is written in Java it should be written inside the class only.
 The general form of a method is as follows:
type name (parameter-list)
{
//body of method
}
 Type indicates the return type of the method. It can be primitive or non-primitive type. In case of
a method does not return a value, its return type must be void.
 Name indicates the name of the method.
 Parameter-list is a sequence of type and identifier pairs separated by commas.
Program:
class Box
{
double width;
double height;
double depth;

//display volume of a box

void volume()
{
System.out.println(“ Volume is “+ (width *height *depth));
}
}
class BoxDemo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Box mybox1 = new Box();
Box mybox2 = new Box();

mybox1.width = 10;
mybox1.height = 20;
mybox1.depth = 15;

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 60
 mybox2.width = 3;
mybox2.height = 6;
mybox2.depth = 9;

mybox1.volume();
mybox2.volume();
}
}
Output:
Volume is 3000.0
Volume is 162.0
 When a method uses an instance variable that is defined by its class, it does so directly, without
preceding them with an object name or the dot operator. The reason for this is a method is
always invoked relative to some object of its class and once this invocation has occurred, the
object is known.
 A method can return a value. In that case we need to take care of the following:
a) The type of data return by a method must be compatible with the return type specified by
the method.
b) The variable receiving the value returned by a method must also be compatible with the
return type specified for the method.
Program:
class Box{
double width;
double height;
double depth;

//display volume of a box

double volume(){
return width *height *depth;
}
}
class BoxDemo{
public static void main(String args[]){
Box mybox1 = new Box();
Box mybox2 = new Box();
double vol;

mybox1.width = 10;
mybox1.height = 20;
mybox1.depth = 15;

mybox2.width = 3;
mybox2.height = 6;
mybox2.depth = 9;

vol = mybox1.volume();
System.out.println(“ Volume is “ + vol);
vol = mybox2.volume();

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 61
 System.out.println(“ Volume is “ + vol);
}
}
Output:
Volume is 3000.0
Volume is 162.0
 In well-designed Java programs, instance variable should be accessed only through methods
defined by their class. In that way we can change the behavior of a method if required easily.
Program:
class Box
{
double width;
double height;
double depth;

//returns volume of a box

double volume()
{
return width *height *depth;
}
void setDim(double w, double h, double d)
{
width = w;
height = h;
depth = d;
}
}
class BoxDemo{
public static void main(String args[]){
Box mybox1 = new Box();
Box mybox2 = new Box();
double vol;

mybox1.setDim(10, 20, 15);

mybox2.setDim(3, 6, 9);

vol = mybox1.volume();
System.out.println(“ Volume is “ + vol);

vol = mybox2.volume();
System.out.println(“ Volume is “ + vol);
}
}
Output:
Volume is 3000.0
Volume is 162.0

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 62
1.3 Constructors:
 Java allows objects to initialize themselves when they are created through the use of a
constructor.
 A constructor initializes the instance variables immediately upon the creation of objects.
 A constructor has the following characteristics:
a) It has the same name as the class in which it resides and is syntactically similar to a
method.
b) A constructor does not return any value, not even void. This is because the implicit return
type of a class’ constructor is the class type itself.
c) Once we define a constructor, during the object creation, it is automatically called and
finishes its execution before the new operator completes its work.
d) A constructor is called and executed only once per each object creation.
Program:
class Box
{
double width;
double height;
double depth;

//Constructor
Box()
{
System.out.println(“Constructing Box”);
width = 10;
height = 10;
depth = 10;
}

//returns volume of a box

double volume()
{
return width *height *depth;
}

}
class BoxDemo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Box mybox1 = new Box();
Box mybox2 = new Box();
double vol;

vol = mybox1.volume();
System.out.println(“ Volume is “ + vol);

vol = mybox2.volume();
System.out.println(“ Volume is “ + vol);
}

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 63
 }
Output:
Constructing Box
Constructing Box
Volume is 1000.0
Volume is 1000.0
 In the line Box mybox1 = new Box();, Box() constructor is called.
 It is not necessary to write a constructor for a class. It is because java compiler creates a default
constructor if your class doesn't have any.

 Types of Constructors:
a) Default constructor: A constructor is called "Default Constructor" when it doesn't have
any parameter. The syntax of default constructor is as follows:
class-name(){ }
In the above code Box() is a default constructor.
 Default constructor is used to provide the default values to the object like 0, null etc.
depending on the type.
 It is useful to initialize all objects with the same data.
 Once we define our own constructor, the default constructor is no longer used.
 When data is not passed at the time of creating an object, default constructor is
called.
b) Parameterized Constructor:A constructor which has a specific number of parameters is
called parameterized constructor.
 It is useful to initialize each object with different data.
 When data is passed at the time of creating an object, parameterized constructor is
called.
Program:
class Box
{
double width;
double height;
double depth;

// Parameterized Constructor
Box(double w, double h, double d)
{
width = w;
height = h;
depth = d;
}

//display volume of a box

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 64
 double volume()
{
return width *height *depth;
}

}
class BoxDemo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Box mybox1 = new Box(10, 20, 15);
Box mybox2 = new Box(3, 6, 9);
double vol;

vol = mybox1.volume();
System.out.println(“ Volume is “ + vol);

vol = mybox2.volume();
System.out.println(“ Volume is “ + vol);
}
}
Output:
Volume is 3000.0
Volume is 162.0
Difference between constructor and method:
Java Constructor Java Method
Constructor is used to initialize the state Method is used to expose behaviour of an
of an object. object.
Constructor must not have return type. Method must have return type.
Constructor is invoked implicitly. Method is invoked explicitly.
The java compiler provides a default Method is not provided by compiler in
constructor if you don't have any any case.
constructor.
Constructor name must be same as the Method name may or may not be same as
class name. class name.
1.4 Data Encapsulation:
 One of OOP’s important benefits is the encapsulation of data and the code that manipulates the
data.
 In Java encapsulation is achieved by using class.
 By creating a class, we are actually creating a new data type that defines both the nature of the
data being manipulated and the routines used to manipulate it.
 We can use the class through its methods without having to worry about the details of its
implementation. So class is like a “data engine”, no knowledge of what goes inside the engine is
required to use the engine through its controls.
Example: Stack
Program:
class Stack
{
JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 65
 int arr[];
int top;
int size;

Stack(int s)
{
size=s;
top = -1;
arr=new int[size];
}

void push(int item)

{
if(top==size-1)
System.out.println("Overflow");
else
arr[++top]=item;
}

int pop()
{
if(top<0)
{
System.out.println("Underflow");
return -1;
}
else
return arr[top--];
}
}
class TestStack
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Stack s1 = new Stack(5);
Stack s2 = new Stack(10);
for(int i=1;i<=5;i++)
s1.push(i);
for(int i=11;i<=20;i++)
s2.push(i);

System.out.print("Elements in s1:");
for(int i=0;i<5;i++)
System.out.print(" "+ s1.pop());

System.out.println("");
System.out.print("Elements in s2:");
for(int i=0;i<10;i++)
System.out.print(" "+ s2.pop());
JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 66
 }

}
Output:
Elements in s1: 5 4 3 2 1
Elements in s2: 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11
1.5 Access Specifiers:
 Encapsulation provides another important attribute: access control.
 Using encapsulation we can control what parts of a program can access which members of a
class. By controlling access, we can prevent misuse.
 A class creates a “black box” which may be used, but the inner working of which are not open to
tampering.
 How a member can be accessed is determined by the access specifier that modifies its
declaration.
 The access specifier in java specifies accessibility (scope) of a data member, method, constructor
or class.
 There are 4 types of java access specifiers:
1. public: public specifiers achieves the highest level of accessibility. Classes, methods, and
fields declared as public can be accessed from any class in the Java program, whether these
classes are in the same package or in another package.
2. private: private specifiers achieves the lowest level of accessibility. Private methods and
fields can only be accessed within the same class to which the methods and fields belong.
Private methods and fields are not visible within subclasses and are not inherited by
subclasses. So, the private access specifier is opposite to the public access specifier. Using
Private Specifier we can achieve encapsulation and hide data from the outside world. The
private access specifier cannot be applied to class because if we do that it will not be
available to Java compiler. However, inner classes can be private.
3. protected: protected members of the class are accessible within the same class and another
class of the same package and also accessible in inherited class of another package. The
protected access specifier cannot be applied to class and interfaces.
4. default (no specifier): When you don't set access specifier for the element, it will follow
the default accessibility level. There is no default specifier keyword. Classes, variables, and
methods can be default accessed. Using default specifier we can access class, method, or
field which belongs to same package, but not from outside this package.
 The summary of access specifier is given below:
outside
within within outside
Access Specifier (AS) package by
class package package
subclass only
Public
Y Y Y Y
(Universal AS)
Private
Y N N N
(Class Level AS)
Protected
Y Y Y N
(Derived Level AS)
Default
Y Y N N
(Package Level AS)

Example: private AS

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 67
 class Hello
{
private int a=20;
private void show()
{
System.out.println("Hello java");
}
}
class Demo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Hello obj=new Hello();
System.out.println(obj.a); //Compile Error, you can't access
private data here
obj.show();//Compile Time Error, you can't access private
methods here
}
}
Example: public AS
class Hello
{
public int a=20;
public void show()
{
System.out.println("Hello Java");
}
}
class Demo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Hello obj=new Hello();
System.out.println(obj.a); // No error
obj.show();//No error
}
}
Output: 20
Hello Java
Example: protected AS
// save A.java
package pack1;
public class A
{
protected void show()
{
System.out.println("Hello Java");
}
}

//save B.java
package pack2;
import pack1.*;
class B extends A
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
B obj = new B();
obj.show();
}

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 68
 }
Output: Hello Java
Example: protected AS
class AccessDemo
{
protected int x = 34;
public void showDemo()
{
System.out.println("The variable value is " + x);
}
}

class ChildAccess extends AccessDemo

{
// child class which inherits the properties of AccessDemo class
}

public class AccessExample

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
ChildAccess ca = new ChildAccess();
ca.showDemo(); // run properly
ca.x = 45; // run properly
}
}

Example: default AS
// save A.java
package pack1;
class A
{
void show()
{
System.out.println("Hello Java");
}
}

//save B.java
package pack2;
import pack1.*;
class B
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
A obj = new A();//Compile Time Error, can't access
outside the package
obj.show(); //Compile Time Error, can't access
outside the package
}
}
 To see how access control can be applied to a more practical example, consider the following
improved version of the Stack:
Program:
class Stack
{
private int arr[];
private int top;
private int size;

Stack(int s)

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 69
 {
size=s;
top = -1;
arr=new int[size];
}

void push(int item)

{
if(top==size-1)
System.out.println("Overflow");
else
arr[++top]=item;
}

int pop()
{
if(top<0)
{
System.out.println("Underflow");
return -1;
}
else
return arr[top--];
}
}
class TestStack
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Stack s1 = new Stack(5);
Stack s2 = new Stack(10);
for(int i=1;i<=5;i++)
s1.push(i);
for(int i=11;i<=20;i++)
s2.push(i);

System.out.print("Elements in s1:");
for(int i=0;i<5;i++)
System.out.print(" "+ s1.pop());

System.out.println("");
System.out.print("Elements in s2:");
for(int i=0;i<10;i++)
System.out.print(" "+ s2.pop());

//These statements are not legal

// s1.top = 2;
// s2.arr[3] = 100;

}
Output:
Elements in s1: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Elements in s2: 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10
1.6 static keyword:
 The static keyword in java is used for memory management mainly.

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 70
  When a member is declared static, it can be accessed before any objects of its class are
created, and without reference to any object.
 We can declare variables, methods, blocks and nested class to be static.
1) static instance variable:
 If you declare any variable as static, it is known static variable.
 Static instance variable are global variables which are used to refer the common property of
all objects (that is not unique for each object) e.g. company name of employees, college
name of students etc.
 When objects of its class are declared, no copy of the static variable is made. All instances
of the class share the same static variable.
 The static variable gets memory only once in class area at the time of class loading.
 Advantage of static variable: It makes your program memory efficient (i.e it saves
memory).
Example:
class Student{
int rollno;
String name;
String college="Silicon";
}
Suppose there are 1000 students in my college, now all instance data members will get memory
each time when object is created. All student have its unique rollno and name so instance data
member is good. Here, college refers to the common property of all objects. If we make it
static, this field will get memory only once.
class Student{
int rollno;
String name;
static String college ="Silicon";

Student(int r,String n){

rollno = r;
name = n;
}
void display (){
System.out.println(rollno+" "+name+" "+college);
}
}
class StaticTest{
public static void main(String args[]){
Student s1 = new Student(111,"Karan");
Student s2 = new Student (222,"Aryan");

s1.display();
s2.display();
}
}
Output:
111 Karan Silicon
222 Aryan Silicon

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 71
  static variable will get the memory only once, if any object changes the value of the static
variable, it will retain its value.
class Counter{
static int count=0;//will get memory only once and retain its
value
Counter(){
count++;
System.out.println(count);
}
public static void main(String args[]){
Counter c1=new Counter();
Counter c2=new Counter();
Counter c3=new Counter();
}
}
Output:
1
2
3
2) static method:
 If you apply static keyword with any method, it is known as static method.
 A static method belongs to the class rather than object of a class.
 A static method can be invoked without the need for creating an instance of a class.
 A static method can only directly access static data member and can change the value of it.
 A static method cannot call non-static method directly it can call static methods only.
 A non-static method can call both static and non-static methods.
Example:
class Student{
int rollno;

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 72
 String name;
static String college ="Silicon";

Student(int r,String n){

rollno = r;
name = n;
}
static void change(){
college = "SIT";
}
void display (){
System.out.println(rollno+" "+name+" "+college);
}
}
class StaticTest{
public static void main(String args[]){
Student s1 = new Student(111,"Karan");
Student s2 = new Student(222,"Aryan");

s1.display();
s2.display();

Student.change();

s1.display();
s2.display();
}
}
Output:
111 Karan Silicon
222 Aryan Silicon
111 Karan SIT
222 Aryan SIT

 Why java main method is static?

Ans: Because object is not required to call static methods. If we would make main()
method as non-static then, JVM would need to create object of that class first to call the
main() method which would lead the problem of extra memory allocation.
3) static block:
 A static block is a block of statements declared as static.
static{
statements;
}
 JVM executes the static block before executing main( ) method.
 Static block is used for initializing the static variables. This block gets executed when the
class is loaded in the memory.
Example:
class JavaExample
{
static int num;

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 73
 static String mystr;
static
{
num = 97;
mystr = "Static keyword in Java";
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
System.out.println("Value of num: "+num);
System.out.println("Value of mystr: "+mystr);
}
}
Output:
Value of num: 97
Value of mystr: Static keyword in Java
 A class can have multiple Static blocks, which will execute in the same sequence in which
they have been written into the program.
Example:
class JavaExample2
{
static int num;
static String mystr;
//First Static block
Static
{
System.out.println("Static Block 1");
num = 68;
mystr = "Block1";
}
//Second static block
Static
{
System.out.println("Static Block 2");
num = 98;
mystr = "Block2";
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
System.out.println("Value of num: "+num);
System.out.println("Value of mystr: "+mystr);
}
}
Output:
Static Block 1
Static Block 2
Value of num: 98
Value of mystr: Block2
4) static class:
 A class can be made static only if it is a nested class.
 Nested static class doesn’t need reference of Outer class
 A static class cannot access non-static members of the Outer class
Example:
class JavaExample
{
private static String str = "BeginnersBook";

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 74
 //Static class
static class MyNestedClass
{
//non-static method
public void disp() {

/* If you make the str variable of outer class

non-static then you will get compilation error
because: a nested static class cannot access non-
static members of the outer class.
*/
System.out.println(str);
}

}
public static void main(String args[])
{
/* To create instance of nested class we didn't need the outer
class instance but for a regular nested class you would need
to create an instance of outer class first*/
MyNestedClass obj = new MyNestedClass();
obj.disp();
}
}
Output:
BeginnersBook
1.7 this keyword:
 In java, ‘this’ is a reference variable that refers to the current object.
 The ‘this’ keyword refers to the current class instance variable.
In this program, we are printing the value of reference variable and this, output of both
variables are same.
class A5
{
void m()
{
System.out.println(this);//prints same reference ID
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
A5 obj=new A5();
System.out.println(obj);//prints the reference ID
obj.m();
}
}
Output:
A5@15db9742
A5@15db9742
There can be a lot of usage of java this keyword. The following are different usage of java this
keyword:
1) this: to refer to the current class instance variable:
Let us consider the following program:
class Student{
int rollno;
String name;
float fee;
Student(int rollno,String name,float fee){
rollno=rollno;
name=name;
fee=fee;
}

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 75
 void display(){
System.out.println(rollno+" "+name+" "+fee);
}
}
class TestThis1{
public static void main(String args[]){
Student s1=new Student(111,"ankit",5000f);
Student s2=new Student(112,"sumit",6000f);
s1.display();
s2.display();
}
}

Output:
0 null 0.0
0 null 0.0
In the above program, the constructor contains the formal arguments whose names are same as
the instance variables. In that case, when we refer to the instance variable the compiler
understands it as local variable only. To avoid this we can use this keyword to distinguish local
variable and instance variable.
class Student{
int rollno;
String name;
float fee;
Student(int rollno,String name,float fee){
this.rollno=rollno;
this.name=name;
this.fee=fee;
}
void display(){
System.out.println(rollno+" "+name+" "+fee);
}
}
class TestThis1{
public static void main(String args[]){
Student s1=new Student(111,"ankit",5000f);
Student s2=new Student(112,"sumit",6000f);
s1.display();
s2.display();
}
}

Output:
111ankit5000
112sumit6000
Example:
class Student
{
String name;
int markProg,markLogic;
char gradeLab;
Student(String s,int mp,int ml,char gl)
{
name=new String(s);
markProg=mp;
markLogic=ml;
gradeLab=gl;
}

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 76
 Student isStronger(Student s)
{
if(markProg>s.markProg)
return this;
else if(markProg==s.markProg && markLogic>s.markLogic)
return this;
else if(markProg==s.markProg && markLogic==s.markLogic &&
gradeLab<s.gradeLab)
return this;
else if(markProg==s.markProg && markLogic==s.markLogic &&
gradeLab==s.gradeLab)
return null;
else
return s;
}
}
class TestStudent
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Student s1=new Student("Ram",56,40,'A');
Student s2=new Student("Shyam",56,40,'A');
if(s1.isStronger(s2)==null)
System.out.println("Performance of both are equal");
else if(s1.isStronger(s2)==s1)
System.out.println("First student is better");
else
System.out.println("Second student is better");
}

}
Output:
Performance of both are equal

NOTE: If the name of local variable and instance variable are different, then no need of
using this keyword.
2) this: to invoke current class constructor
The this() constructor call can be used to invoke the current class constructor. It is used to
reuse the constructor. In other words, it is used for constructor chaining. The following
program shows Calling default constructor from parameterized constructor:
class A{
A(){System.out.println("Hello a");}
A(int x){
this();
System.out.println(x);
}
}
class TestThis5{
public static void main(String args[]){
A a=new A(10);
}
}
Output:
Hello a

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 77
 10
The following program shows calling parameterized constructor from default constructor:
class A{
A(){
this(5);
System.out.println("Hello a");
}
A(int x){
System.out.println(x);
}
}
class TestThis6{
public static void main(String args[]){
A a=new A();
}
}
Output:
5
Hello
The this() constructor call should be used to reuse the constructor from the constructor. It
maintains the chain between the constructors i.e. it is used for constructor chaining. So the real
usage of this() constructor call is explained through the following example:
class Student{
int rollno;
String name,course;
float fee;
Student(int rollno,String name,String course){
this.rollno=rollno;
this.name=name;
this.course=course;
}
Student(int rollno,String name,String course,float fee){
this(rollno,name,course);//reusing constructor
this.fee=fee;
}
void display()
{
System.out.println(rollno+" "+name+" "+course+" "+fee);}
}
class TestThis7{
public static void main(String args[]){
Student s1=new Student(111,"ankit","java");
Student s2=new Student(112,"sumit","java",6000f);
s1.display();
s2.display();
}
}
Output:

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 78
 111 ankit java null
112 sumit java 6000
NOTE: Call to this() must be the first statement in constructor. Otherwise java shows compile
time error.
3) this: to pass as an argument in the method
The this keyword can also be passed as an argument in the method. In event handling (or) in a
situation where we have to provide reference of a class to another one. It is used to reuse one
object in many methods. Let's see one example:
class S2
{
void m(S2 obj)
{
System.out.println("method is invoked");
}
void p()
{
m(this);
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
S2 s1 = new S2();
s1.p();
}
}
Output:
method is invoked
4) this: to pass as argument in the constructor call
We can pass the this keyword in the constructor also. It is useful if we have to use one object in
multiple classes. Let's see the example:
class B{
A4 obj;
B(A4 obj){
this.obj=obj;
}
void display(){
System.out.println(obj.data);//using data member of A4 class
}
}
class A4{
int data=10;
A4(){
B b=new B(this);
b.display();
}
public static void main(String args[]){
A4 a=new A4();
}
}
Output:
10
5) this keyword can be used to return current class instance
We can return this keyword as a statement from the method. In such case, return type of the
method must be the class type (non-primitive). Let's see the example:
class A{
A getA(){
return this;

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 79
 }
void msg(){System.out.println("Hello Java");}
}
class Test1{
public static void main(String args[]){
new A().getA().msg();
}
}
Output:
Hello Java
1.8 Array of Objects:
An object of class represents a single record in memory, if we want more than one record of
class type, we have to create an array of class or object. As we know, an array is a collection of
similar type, therefore an array can be a collection of class type.
Syntax:
class ClassName
{
datatype var1;
datatype var2;
- - - - - - - - - -
datatype varN;

method1();
method2();
- - - - - - - - - -
methodN();
}
Class-Name [] object = new Class-Name [size];
Example:
import java.util.Scanner;
class Employee
{
int Id;
String Name;
int Age;
long Salary;

void GetData() // Defining GetData()

{
Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.print("\n\tEnter Employee Id : ");

Id = Integer.parseInt(sc.nextLine());

System.out.print("\n\tEnter Employee Name : ");

Name = sc.nextLine();

System.out.print("\n\tEnter Employee Age : ");

Age = Integer.parseInt(sc.nextLine());

System.out.print("\n\tEnter Employee Salary : ");

Salary = Integer.parseInt(sc.nextLine());

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 80
 void PutData() // Defining PutData()
{
System.out.print("\n\t" + Id + "\t" +Name +
"\t" +Age + "\t" +Salary);
}

public static void main(String args[])

{
Employee[] Emp = new Employee[3];
int i;
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
Emp[i] = new Employee();
// Allocating memory to each object
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
System.out.print("\nEnter details of "+ (i+1)
+" Employee\n");
Emp[i].GetData();
}
System.out.print("\nDetails of Employees\n");
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
Emp[i].PutData();
}
}
Output:
Enter details of 1 Employee
Enter Employee Id : 101
Enter Employee Name : Suresh
Enter Employee Age : 29
Enter Employee Salary : 45000

Enter details of 2 Employee

Enter Employee Id : 102
Enter Employee Name : Mukesh
Enter Employee Age : 31
Enter Employee Salary : 51000

Enter details of 3 Employee

Enter Employee Id : 103
Enter Employee Name : Ramesh
Enter Employee Age : 28
Enter Employee Salary : 47000

Details of Employees
101 Suresh 29 45000
102 Mukesh 31 51000
103 Ramesh 28 47000

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 81
 NOTE: In the above example an array of objects is created just like an array of primitive type
data items in the following way.
Employee[] Emp = new Employee[3];
The above statement creates the array which can hold references to three Employee objects. It
doesn't create the Employee objects themselves. They have to be created separately using the
constructor of the Student class. The following code does that:
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
Emp[i] = new Employee();
Example:
class Student
{
public int roll_no;
public String name;
Student(int roll_no, String name)
{
this.roll_no = roll_no;
this.name = name;
}
}

// Elements of array are objects of a class Student.

public class GFG
{
public static void main (String[] args)
{
// declares an Array of integers.
Student[] arr;

// allocating memory for 5 objects of type Student.

arr = new Student[5];

// initialize the first elements of the array

arr[0] = new Student(1,"aman");

// initialize the second elements of the array

arr[1] = new Student(2,"vaibhav");

// so on...
arr[2] = new Student(3,"shikar");
arr[3] = new Student(4,"dharmesh");
arr[4] = new Student(5,"mohit");

// accessing the elements of the specified array

for (int i = 0; i < arr.length; i++)
System.out.println("Element at " + i + " : " +
arr[i].roll_no +" "+ arr[i].name);
}
}

Output:
Element at 0 : 1 aman
Element at 1 : 2 vaibhav
Element at 2 : 3 shikar

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 82
 Element at 3 : 4 dharmesh
Element at 4 : 5 mohit

JAVA/JPM/Module I Page 83