The Operational Amplifier
(Chapter 5)
Textbook:
Electric Circuits
James W. Nilsson & Susan A. Riedel
9th Edition.
Fall 2020
Objectives
Be able to name the five op amp terminals, and describe and use the
voltage and current constraints of an ideal op amp.
Be able to analyze simple circuits containing ideal op amps, and recognize
the following op amp circuits: inverting amplifier, summing amplifier, non
inverting amplifier, and difference amplifier.
Understand the more realistic model for an op amp.
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Outline
Operational amplifier terminals
Terminal voltages and currents
The inverting-amplifier circuit
The summing-amplifier circuit
The non inverting-amplifier circuit
The difference-amplifier circuit
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Op Amps
Op Amp <==> operational amplifier.
An Op Amp is modeled as a voltage
controlled voltage source.
An operational amplifier has a very high input
impedance and a very high gain.
Op amps can be configured in many different
ways using resistors and other components.
Most configurations use feedback.
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Applications of Op Amps
Amplifiers provide gains in voltage or current.
Op amps can convert current to voltage.
Op amps can provide a buffer between two
circuits.
Op amps can be used to implement
integrators and differentiators.
Lowpass and bandpass filters.
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Applications of Op Amps
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Internal Circuit of 741 Type Op Amp
A component level diagram of the common 741 op-amp. Dotted
lines outline: current mirrors(red); differential amplifier(blue); class
A gain stage (magenta); voltage level shifter (green); output stage
(cyan).
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Op Amp Terminals
Terminals of primary interest:
inverting input
noninverting input
output
positive power supply (+Vcc)
negative power supply (-Vcc)
Offset null terminals may be
used to compensate for a
degradation in performance
because of aging and
imperfections.
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The Op Amp Model
An operational amplifier is modeled as a voltage-
controlled voltage source.
A(V2 - V1)
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Typical vs. Ideal Op Amps
Typical Op Amp: Ideal Op Amp:
The input resistance The input resistance is
(impedance) Rin is very infinite.
large (practically infinite). The gain is infinite.
The voltage gain A is very The op amp is in a
large (practically infinite). negative feedback
configuration.
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Terminal Voltages and Currents
Terminal voltage variables Terminal current variables
All voltages are considered as All current reference directions
voltages rises from the common are into the terminal of the op-
node. amp.
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Terminal Voltages and Currents
The terminal behavior of the op
amp as linear circuit element is
characterized by constraints on
the input voltages and input
currents.
VCC
A v p v n VCC
Voltage transfer
v0 A v p vn
VCC A v p v n VCC
A v p v n VCC
VCC
characteristic:
When the magnitude of the input voltage difference (|vp – vn|) is small, the op
amp behaves as a linear device, as the output voltage is a linear function of
the input voltages (the output voltage is equal to the difference in its input
voltages times the gain, A.
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Terminal Voltages and Currents
For ideal op amp:
Input voltage constraint: v p vn
Input current constraint: i p in 0
Apply Kirchhoff’s current law
i p in i0 ic ic 0 Even though the current at the input
terminal is negligible, there are still
i0 ic ic appreciable current at the output
terminal.
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Example 1
(a) Calculate v0 if va = 1 V and vb = 0 V.
(b) Calculate v0 if va = 1 V and vb = 2 V.
(c) If va = 1.5 V , specify the range of vb that avoids amplifier
saturation.
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Sol. of Example 1
a) A negative feedback path exists from the op amp's output to its inverting
input through the 100 k resistor, assume the op amp is working in linear
operating region. write a node-voltage equation at the inverting input
terminal. The voltage at the inverting input terminal is 0, as vp = vb = 0 from
the connected voltage source, and vn = vp from the voltage constraint. The
node-voltage equation at vn is: i25 + i100 = in
i25 = (va - vn)/25 = 1/25 mA
i100 = (vo - vn)/100 = vo/100 mA
The current constraint requires in = 0. Substituting the values for the three
currents into the node-voltage equation, we obtain
vo = - 4 V
b) Vp = vb = vn = 2 V
i25 = - i100
vo = 6 V
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Sol. of Example 1
c) vn = vp = vb, and i25 = -i100
va = 1.5 V
Solving for vb as a function of vo gives
Now, if the amplifier is to be within the linear region of operation,
-10 V vo 10 V.
Substituting these limits on vo into the expression for vb, we see that vb
is limited to
-0.8 V vb 3.2 V.
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The Basic Inverting Amplifier
Consequences of the Ideal
Infinite input resistance means the current into the inverting (–) input is
zero:
i– = 0
Infinite gain means the difference between v+ and v– is zero:
v + – v– = 0
R2
R1
–
Vin + + +
– Vout
–
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The Basic Inverting Amplifier
Solving the Amplifier Circuit
Apply KCL at the inverting (–) input:
R2
Vout i 0
i2
R1
Vin V– Vin V Vin
– i1
i1 i– R1 R1
Vout V Vout
i2
i1 + i2 + i– =0 R2 R2
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The Basic Inverting Amplifier
Solve for Vout
From KCL Thus, the amplifier
gain is
i1 i2 i 0 Vout R2
Vin Vout
00 Vin R1
R1 R2
Vin Vout
R1 R2
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The Inverting Amplifier Circuit
Rf
v0 vs
Rs
The output voltage is an
inverted, scaled replica of the
input.
R f VCC Rf is negative feedback of the
Upper limit on the gain: circuit.
Rs vs
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The Inverting Amplifier Circuit
When Rf is removed, the feedback path is opened and the amplifier is called open loop.
v0 -Av
Avs n A is called the open-loop gain of the op amp
The negative sign in the equation indicates an inversion of the output signal
with respect to the input as it is 180o out of phase.
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The Inverting Amplifier Circuit
Transresistance Amplifier Circuit
Application of an inverting amplifier is that of a "transresistance amplifier"
circuit. A "transimpedance amplifier", is basically a current-to-voltage
converter (Current "in" and Voltage "out"). They can be used in low-power
applications to convert a very small current generated by a photo-diode or
photo-detecting device etc, into a usable output voltage which is proportional
to the input current.
The output voltage is
proportional to the amount of
input current generated by
the photo-diode.
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The Summing Amplifier Circuit
Rf Rf Rf
v0 va vb vc
Ra Rb Rc
The output voltage of a summing amplifier is an inverted, scaled
sum of the voltages applied to the input of the amplifier.
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Example 3.1:
Find the output voltage of the following Summing Amplifier circuit
Solution:
Using the previously found
formula for the gain of the circuit
we can now substitute the values of the
resistors in the circuit as follows,
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Example 3.2
(a) Find v0 with va =0.1 V and vb = 0.25 V.
(b) If vb = 0.25 V, how large can va be before the op amp
saturates.
(c) If va = 0.1 V, how large can vb be before the op amp
saturates.
(d) Repeat (a), (b), and (c) with the polarity of vb reversed.
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Sol. of example 3
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Sol. of example 3
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Summing Amplifier Applications
Summing Amplifier Audio Mixer
If the input resistances of a summing amplifier are connected to
potentiometers the individual input signals can be mixed together by varying
amounts.
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Summing Amplifier Applications
Digital to Analogue Converter (DAC summing amplifier circuit)
Another useful application of a Summing Amplifier is as a weighted sum
digital-to-analogue converter. If the input resistors, Rin of the summing
amplifier double in value for each input, for example, 1kΩ, 2kΩ, 4kΩ, 8kΩ,
16kΩ, etc, then a digital logical voltage, either a logic level "0" or a logic
level "1" on these inputs will produce an output which is the weighted sum
of the digital inputs. Consider the circuit below.
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The Non-Inverting Amplifier
– +
vin +
– vout
R2
R1
–
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The Non-Inverting Amplifier
KCL at the Inverting Input
i 0
+
+
– v vin
i1
vin + i– R1 R1
–
vout
i1 i2
R2
R1 vout v
i2
– R2
vout vin
R2
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The Non-Inverting Amplifier
Solve for vout
i1 i2 i 0
vin vout vin
0
R1 R2
R2
vout vin 1
R1
Hence, the non-inverting amplifier has a
gained output (> unity) relative to the
resistance ratio
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The Non-inverting Amplifier Circuit
Rs R f
v0 vg
Rs
Requirement for operation in the linear region:
Rs R f VCC
Rs Vg
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Example 4
(a) Find the output voltage when Rx = 60 kΩ
(b) How large can Rx be before the amplifier saturates.
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Sol. of example 4
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Sol. of example 4
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The Difference Amplifier Circuit
Rd Ra Rb R
v0 vb b v a
Ra Rc Rd Ra
(*)
Rb
If set
Ra Rc
then v0 vb v a
Rb Rd Ra
The output voltage of a difference amplifier is a scaled replica of the
difference between the two input voltages. The scaling is controlled by the
external resistors.
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Example 5
(a) In the difference amplifier shown, vb = 4 V. What range of values for va will
result in linear operation.
(b) Repeat (a) with 20 kΩ resistor decreased to 8 kΩ
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Sol. of example 5
(*)
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Sol. of example 5
(*)
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The Difference Amplifier Circuit:
Applications
Bridge Amplifier
The standard Differential Amplifier circuit now becomes a differential voltage
comparator by "Comparing" one input voltage to the other.
By connecting one input to a fixed voltage reference set up on one leg of the
resistive bridge network and the other to either a "Thermistor" or a "Light
Dependant Resistor" the amplifier circuit can be used to detect either low or
high levels of temperature or light as the output voltage becomes a linear
function of the changes in the active leg of the resistive bridge.
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The Difference Amplifier Circuit:
Applications
The circuit acts as a light-activated switch turns the output relay either "ON"
or "OFF" as the light level detected by the LDR resistor exceeds or falls below a
pre-set value at V2 determined by the position of VR1. A fixed voltage reference
is applied to the inverting input terminal V1 via the R1 - R2 voltage divider
network and the variable voltage (proportional to the light level) applied to the
non-inverting input terminal V2. It is also possible to detect temperature using
this type of circuit by
simply replacing the
Light Dependant
Resistor (LDR) with a
thermistor. By
interchanging the
positions of VR1and
the LDR, the circuit can
be used to detect either
light or dark, or heat or
cold using a thermistor.
Light Activated Switch:
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The difference amplifier – Another
perspective
vdm vb va
vcm va vb / 2
v0 Acm vcm Admvdm
An ideal differential amplifier has zero common mode gain and non-zero (usually
large) differential mode gain.
In practical applications, the differential mode signal contains information of
interest, whereas the common mode signal is the noise found in all electric signals.
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