FOUNDATION OF COMPUTER

Unit – I
Computer ,I/O devices and Memory

RIZWAN AKHTAR
 What is Computer ?

A computer is a machine that can be instructed

to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical
operations automatically via computer
programming. Modern computers have the
ability to follow generalized sets of operations,
called programs. These programs enable
computers to perform an extremely wide range
of tasks. A "complete" computer including the
hardware, the operating system (main software),
and peripheral equipment required and used for
"full" operation can be referred to as a computer
system. This term may as well be used for a
group of computers that are connected and
Data and Information-
Data can be defined as a representation of facts,
concepts, or instructions in a formalized manner,
which should be suitable for communication,
interpretation, or processing by human or electronic
machine.
Data is represented with the help of characters such
as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-
9) or special characters (+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc.)

Information is organized or classified data, which has

some meaningful values for the
receiver. Information is the processed data on which
decisions and actions are based.
Timely − Information
should be available
when required.

Accuracy − Information
should be accurate.

Completeness −
Information should be
complete.
CHARACTERSTICS OF COMPUTER
SPEED-
A computer works with much higher speed and
accuracy compared to humans while performing
mathematical calculations. Computers can process
millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second. The time
taken by computers for their operations is microseconds
and nanoseconds.

ACCURACY-
Computers perform calculations with 100%
accuracy. Errors may occur due to data inconsistency or
inaccuracy.

DILIGENCE-
A computer can perform millions of tasks or
calculations with the same consistency and accuracy. It
VERSALITY-
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer
to perform different kinds of works with same accuracy
and efficiency.

RELAIBILITY-
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent
result for similar set of data i.e., if we give same set of
input any number of times, we will get the same result.
Automation:
Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it
performs tasks without manual intervention.

MEMORY-
A computer has built-in memory called primary
memory where it stores data. Secondary storage are
removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which
memory is just like a human brain. It is
used to store data and instructions.
Computer memory is the storage space in
the computer, where data is to be
processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is
divided into large number of small parts
called cells. Each location or cell has a
unique address, which varies from zero to
memory size minus one.

Memory is primarily of three types −

Cache Memory
Primary Memory/Main Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed
semiconductor memory which can speed up
the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU
and the main memory. It is used to hold those
parts of data and program which are most
frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data
and programs are transferred from the disk to
cache memory by the operating system, from
where the CPU can access them.
Fast in nature, Small in size, expensive than
others
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those
data and instructions on which the
computer is currently working. It has
a limited capacity and data is lost
when power is switched off. It is
generally made up of semiconductor
device. These memories are not as
fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed
resides in the main memory. It is
divided into two subcategories RAM
and ROM.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as
external memory or non-volatile. It is
slower than the main memory. These are
used for storing data/information
permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories, instead they are accessed
via input-output routines. The contents of
secondary memories are first transferred to
the main memory, and then the CPU can
access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD,
etc.
LECTURE-2
ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER-

1- Increase your productivity.

2- Can store vast amount of information and reduce waste.
3- Multitasking.
4- Help sort ,organize and search through information.
5-Speed
6- Accuracy
7- Data security
8- In Business
LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER-
1- Health issues .
2- Depend on user’s input.
3- Cannot takes its own decision.
4- Virus and hacking attacks .
5- Online cyber crimes .
6- Crashed network .
7- Data and information violation .
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF
COMPUTER
CENTRAL PROCESSING
UNIT(CPU)-
The computer system is nothing
without the central processing unit so, it is also known
as the brain or heart of computer. The CPU is an
electronic hardware device which can perform different
types of operations such as arithmetic and logical
operation.

CONTROL UNIT(CU)-
The control unit(CU)
controls all the activities or operations which are
performed inside the computer system. It receives
instructions or information directly from the main
memory of the computer.
ARITHMETIC AND LOGICAL UNIT-
The arithmetic and logical unit is
the combinational digital electronic circuit that can
perform arithmetic operations on integer binary
numbers. It presents the arithmetic and logical
operation . The outputs of ALU will change
asynchronously in response to the input. The basic
arithmetic and bitwise logic functions are supported by
ALU.

STORAGE UNIT-
The information or set of
guidelines are stored in the storage unit of the
computer system. The storage unit provides the space
to store the data or instruction or data is saved or hold
in computer memory or storage device. The data
MAIN MEMORY-
The random access memory is
the main memory of the computer system, which is
known as RAM. The main memory can store the
operating system software, application software , and
other information. The RAM is one of the fastest
memory, and it allows the data to be readable and
writeable.

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES-

The user provides the set of
instruction or information to the computer system with
the help of input devices such as the keyboard, mouse,
scanner etc.
The output devices
produce or generate the desired result according to our
LECTURE- 3
 FUNCTION OF DIFFERENT
UNITS OF

COMPUTER
ARITHMETIC AND LOGICAL
UNIT-
The arithmetic and logical unit is
the combinational digital electronic circuit that can
perform arithmetic operations on integer binary
numbers. It presents the arithmetic and logical
operation . The outputs of ALU will change
asynchronously in response to the input. The basic
arithmetic and bitwise logic functions are supported by
ALU.

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES-

The user provides the set of
instruction or instruction to the computer system with
the help of input devices such as the keyboard, mouse,
MEMORY-
A memory is just like a human brain. It is
used to stored data and instructions . Computer
memory is a storage space in the computer, where data
is to be processed. The memory is divided into large
number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell
has a unique address , which varies from zero to
memory size minus one.
Memory is primarily three types-
1- Cache Memory.
2- Primary Memory/Main Memory.
3-Secondary Memory.

CACHE MEMORY-
Cache memory is a very high speed
semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It
which are most frequently used by CPU . The parts of data
and programs are transferred from the disk to cache
memory by the operating system , from where the CPU
can access them.

PRIMARY MEMORY/MAIN MEMORY-

The random access memory is
the main memory of the computer which is known as the
RAM. The main memory can store the operating system
software, application software , and other information.
The RAM is one of the fastest memory, and it allows the
SECONDARY MEMORY-
 This type of memory is known as external
memory or non –volatile . It is slower than the main
memory. These are used for storing data/information
permanently. CPU directly does not access these
memories , instead they are accessed via input-output
routines. The contents of secondary memories are first
transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can
access it. FOR EXAMPLE- disk, CD-ROM,DVD etc.

CONTROL-
Control is a function management
which helps to check errors in order to take corrective
action.
The process of monitoring activities
to ensure that they are being accomplished as planned
and of correcting any significant deviations.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER-

Classification of computer(size)-

1- Mainframe computer-
The mainframe is very large in size and
is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds
or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe
executes many programs concurrently and supports much
simultaneous execution of programs.

2-Mini computer-
It is a midsize multi-processing system
capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.
Micro computer-
Microcomputers are a lot of littler in size
than all Computers or the smallest one. At the point
when the Micro Processor was invented during the
1970s, it was possible to end up truly outstanding and
cheap Computer frameworks. Because of the microchip,
these Computers can be kept in either Desk or
Briefcase. These little PCs are called microcomputers.

Super computer-
Supercomputers are one of the fastest
computers currently available. Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized
applications that require an immense amount of
mathematical calculations.
For example: wheather forecasting, nuclear energy
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER(by
type)
Analog computer-
An analog computer (spelt analogue in
British English) is a form of computer that uses
continuous physical phenomena such as electrical,
mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem
being solved. Analog computer is used to measure ie
speedometer, temperature, pressure

Digital computer-
A computer that performs calculations and logical
operations with quantities represented as digits usually in
the binary number system. We generally use digital
computer
Hybrid computer- A combination of computers those
are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital and
 INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES
Input Devices Output Devices

1-An input device can send data 1- An output device can receive
to another device, but it data from another device and
cannot receive data from generate output with that data,
another but it cannot send data to
another device.
device.
2- Example- CD-RW drive and
2- Example- Monitor, Projector,
DVD-RW drive , USB flash drive.
Speaker etc.
3- It converts machine’s
3- It converts user friendly
instructions to user intelligible.
instruction into machine
friendly. 4-It is command by the processor.
4-It is directly command by the 5- The design of output devices
user. are less complex.

5-The design of input devices are

more complex.
LECTURE -4
 COMPUTER
MEMORY
A memory is just like a human
brain. It is used to store data and instruction . Computer
memory is the storage space in the computer , where
data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large
number of small parts of cells. Each location or cell has
a unique address, which varies from zero to memory
size minus one. For example , if the computer has 64K
words, then this memory unit has 64*1024=65536
memory locations . The address of these locations
varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types-
CACHE MEMORY-
Cache memory is a very high
speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the
CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main
memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and
program which are most frequently used by the CPU.
The parts of data and programs are transferred from the
disk to cache memory by the operating system, from
where the CPU can access them.

ADVANTAGES-
The advantages of cache memory are
as follows-
1- Cache memory is faster than main memory.
2- It consumes less access time as compared to main
memory.
DISADVANTAGES-
The disadvantages of cache
memory are as follows –
1- Cache memory has limited capacity.
2- It is very expensive .

PRIMARY MEMORY(Main
Memory)-
Primary Memory holds only
those data and instructions on which the computer is
currently working . It has a limited capacity and data is
lost when power is switched off. It is generally made
up of semiconductor device. These memories are not
as fast as registers . The data and instruction required
to be processed resides in the main memory. It is
divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of main memory-

1- These are semiconductor memories.

2- It is known as the main memory.
3- Usually volatile memory.
4- Data is lost in case power is switches off.
5- It is the working memory of the computer.
6- Faster than secondary memories.
7- A computer cannot run without the primary
memory.
SECONDARY MEMORY-
This type of memory is
also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is
slower than the main memory. These are used for
storing data/information permanently. CPU directly
does not access these memories, instead they
accessed via input-output routines. The contents of
secondary memories are first transferred to the main
memory, and then the CPU can access it. For
example, disk CD-ROM,DVD, etc
Characteristics of Secondary
Memory-
1- These are magnetic and optical memories.
2- It is known as the backup memory.
3- It is a non-volatile memory.
4- Data is permanently stored even if power is
switched off.
5- It is used for storage of data in a computer.
6- Computer may run without the secondary memory.
7- Slower than primary memories.