THE DATABASE

ENVIRONMENT
Basic Concepts and Definition

 What is DATABASE?
 An organized collection of logically related
data. A database may be of any size and
complexity.
 Databases today are used to store objects
such as documents, photographic images,
sound, and even video segments, in
addition to conventional textual and
numeric data.
 In addition to storing data, you can also
sort, extract, and summarize information
 What is DATA?
 Historically, the term data referred to
known as facts that could be recorded
and stored in a computer media.
 Since databases today are used to store
objects such as documents, photographic
images, sound and even video segments,
in addition to textual and numerical data.
To reflect this reality, the definition of
data now is:
 Consists of facts, text, graphics, images,
sound and video segments that have
meaning in the user’s environment.
 Example:
Baker, Kenetth 324917628
Doyle, Joan 467231428
Finkle, Clive 123456789
Lewis, John 987654312
McFerran, Debra 873548179
 These facts satisfy our definition of

data because even if we guess that

this is a list of persons’ name together
with their Social Security Numbers,
the data remain useless since we
have no idea what the entries mean.
 What is INFORMATION?
 The terms data and information are
closely related and in fact are often used
interchangeably. However, it is often
useful to distinguish between data and
information.
 Data that has been processed in such a
way that it can increase the knowledge of
the person who uses it.
 Another way to convert data into
information is to summarize them or
otherwise process and present them for
human interpretation.
 For example: A summarized student
Examples

Summarized Data
Data in Context
 What is METADATA?
 These are data that describe the
properties or characteristics of other data.
Some of these properties include data
definitions, data structures and rules or
constraints.
 Some sample metadata for the Class Roster
are listed in Table 1.1
 For each data item that appears in the Class
Roster, the metadata show the data item, the
data type, length, minimum and maximum
allowable values and brief description of each
data item.
Descriptions of the properties or
characteristics of the data, including data
types, field sizes, allowable values, and
documentation.

Distinction between data and metadata:

Metadata is once removed from data. That
Traditional File
Processing Systems
 In the beginning of computer-based
data processing, there were no
databases. Computers were used
almost exclusively for scientific
engineering calculations.
 To be useful for business applications,

computers must be able to store,

manipulate and retrieve large files of
data. Computer file processing
systems were developed for this
 In file system approach, each user
defines and implements the needed
files for a specific application to run.
 For example in sales department of an
enterprise, One user will be maintaining the
details of how many sales personnel are there
in the sales department and their grades,
these details will be stored and maintained in a
separate file.
 Another user will be maintaining the
salesperson salary details working in the
concern, the detailed salary report will be
stored and maintained in a separate file.
Although both of the users are interested in the
data’s of the salespersons they will be having
their details in a separate file and they need
Three file processing systems at Pine Valley
Furniture
Duplica
te Data
 Disadvantages
 Program-data Dependence
 All
programs maintain metadata for each file
they use.
 File descriptions are stored within each
application program that access a given file.
Notice in the File Processing System of PVF that the
Customer Master File is used in both the Order
Filling System and the Invoicing System. Supposed
it is decided to change the customer address field
length in the records in this file from 30-40
characters. The file descriptions in each program
that is affected (up to five programs) would have to
be modified.
  Duplication of data or Data Redundancy
 Since applications are often developed
independently in file processing systems,
unplanned duplicate data files are the rule
rather than the exception.
 Duplicate data files often result in loss of data
integrity since either the data formats may be
inconsistent or data values may not agree (or
both).
 Different systems/programs have separate
Example in the File Processing System of PVF the
Ordercopies
FillingofSystem
the same data an Inventory Master
contains
File, while the Invoicing System contains an
Inventory Pricing File. These files undoubtedly both
contain data describing the PNV Company’s
products such as products description, unit price,
etc. This duplication is wasteful since it requires
  Limited Data Sharing
 With the traditional file processing approach,
each application has its own private files and
users have little opportunity to share data
outside their own applications.
 No centralized control of data.
Notice in the File Processing System of PVF for
example that users in Accounting Department have
Access to the Invoicing System and its files, but
they probably do not have access to the Order
Filling System or the Payroll System and their files.
 Lengthy Development Times
 There is little opportunity to leverage previous
development efforts.
 Each new application requires that the
developer essentially start from scratch by
designing new file formats and descriptions.
 Excessive Program Maintenance
 Asmuch as 80% of the total information
systems developed budget may be devoted to
program maintenance in such organizations.

SOLUTION:
The DATABASE Approach

Requires a Database
Management System (DBMS)
The Database Approach
 It emphasizes the integration and
sharing of data throughout the
organization.
 In Database approach, data is

managed by a controlling agent and

stored in a standardized, convenient
form.
 This approach requires a fundamental

re orientation or shift in thought

process, starting with top
 What is DBMS?
 A software system that is used to create,
maintain, and provide controlled access
to user databases
 It manages data resources, like an

operating system manages hardware

resources.
Order Filing
System

Invoicing Central database

DBMS
System
Contains employee,
order, inventory,
pricing, and
Payroll
customer data
System
 Elements of Database Approach
 Enterprise Data Model
A graphical model that shows the high level
entities for the organization and association
among the entities.
 Example of Enterprise Data Model at PVF are
the following:
 Customer, Product, Employee, Customer Order and
Department
 Characteristics:
 It is a model of the organization that provides
valuable information about how the organization
functions, as well as important constraints.
 It stresses the integration of data and processes by
focusing on entities, relationships and business rules.
Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD)

One customer
may place
many orders,
but each order
is placed by a
single
customer
 One-to-
many
relationship
One order has
many order
lines; each
order line is
associated
with a single
order
 One-to-
many
relationship
One product
can be in
many order
lines, each
order line
refers to a
single product
 One-to-
many
relationship
Therefore,
one order
involves
many
products and
one product is
involved in
many orders

Many-to-
 Relational Databases
 Database technology involving tables
(relations) representing entities and
primary/foreign keys representing relationships
 Database Applications
 Itis an application program (or set of related
programs) that is used to perform a series of
activities on behalf of database users.
 Each database application performs some
combination of the following basic operations.
 Create – Add new data to the database.
 Read – Read current database data.
 Update – Update or modify current database data
 Delete – Delete current data from the database.
The Range of Database
Applications
 Database range from those for a
single user with a desktop computer
or PDA to those on mainframe
computers with thousand of users.
 The range of database applications

can be divided into five categories:

 Personal Databases, Enterprise Databases
 Workgroup Databases
 Department Databases
 Internet, Intranet and Extranet Databases
 Personal Databases
 These are designed to support one user.
They have long resided on personal
computers (PCs), including laptops.
 Recently,Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) has
incorporated personal databases like database
applications that store customer information
and the details of contacts with each customer.
 These are widely used because they can
often improve personal productivity.
However they entail a risk: the data
cannot easily be shared with other users.
 These databases is for very small
organization only.
Typical data from a personal database
 Workgroup Databases
 A workgroup is a relatively small team of
people who collaborate on the same
project or application or on a group of
similar projects or applications.
A workgroup typically comprises fewer than 25
persons.
 A workgroup database is designed to
support the collaborative efforts of such
team.
 Data are easily shared unlike in personal
databases.
 It introduces many data management
issues not present with personal
Workgroup database with wireless local area network
 Department Databases
 A department is a functional unit within
an organization.
 Typical
examples of departments are :
Personnel, marketing, manufacturing and
accounting
 Generally larger than a workgroup (typically
25-100 persons) and is more responsible for a
more diverse range of functions.
 These databases are designed to support
the various functions and activities of a
department.
 These databases are the most common of
the five types of databases.
 Enterprise Databases
 An enterprise database is one whose
scope is the entire organization or
enterprise (or, at least many different
departments).
 These databases are intended to support
organization wide operations and decision
making.
 These databases support information
needs from many departments. Over the
last decade, the evolution of enterprise
databases has resulted in two major
developments:
 Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems
 Internet, Intranet and Extranet
Databases
 The most recent change that affects the
database environment is the ascendance
of the Internet, a worldwide network that
connects users of multiple platforms
easily through an interface known as a
Web Browser.
 When a database is web enabled, the web
browser interface allows users to ask
unique and specific questions and
received answers based on current
information meaning its automated.
(There is no need to go through a series
 Web-enabled databases are indispensable
to the development of on-line shopping
sites.
 Extranet – use of Internet protocols to
establish limited access to company data
and information by the company’s
customers and suppliers.
 Ituses Internet technology but access to the
extranet is not universal rather access is
restricted to business suppliers and customers
with whom an agreement has been reached.
 Intranet – Use of Internet protocols to
establish access to company data and
information limited to the organization.
 This access facilitates the business relationship
Components of the
Database Environment
 Computer Aided Software
Engineering Tools (CASE)
 Automated tools used to design
databases and application programs.
 Repository
 Centralized storehouse of metadata
important for managing databases as well
as other components of an information
system
 Database Management System
(DBMS)
 Commercial software system used to
define, create, maintain and provide
controlled access to the database and
also to the repository.
 Database
 An organized collection of logically related
data usually designed to meet the
information needs of multiple users in an
organization.
 Repository contains definitions of data
whereas database contains occurrences
of data.
 Application Programs
 Computer programs that are used to
create and maintain database and
provide information to users.
 User Interface
 Languages, menus, and other facilities by
which users interact with various system
components like CASE tools, DBMS,
Repository and applications programs.
 Data Administrators
 Persons who are responsible for the
overall information resources of an
organization.

 System Developers
 Persons such as system analysts, and
programmers who design new application
programs.
 They often use CASE tools for system
requirements analysis and program
design.
 End users
 Persons throughout the organization who
add, delete and modify data in the
database and who request and receive
information from it.
Advantages of Database
Approach
 Program-Data Independence
 The separation of data descriptions
(metadata) from the application programs
that use the data is called data
independence.
 Data descriptions are stored in a central
location called repository. This property
allows an organization’s data to change
and evolve without changing the
application programs that process the
data.
 Minimal Data Redundancy
 The design goal with the database
approach is that previously separate data
files are integrated into a single, logical
structure.
 Each primary fact is recorded in only one
place in the database.
 The database approach does not
eliminate redundancy entirely, but it
allows the designer to carefully control
the type and amount of redundancy.
 Improved Data Consistency
 By eliminating (or controlling) data
redundancy, it greatly reduce the
opportunities for inconsistency.
 It avoids wasted storage space that
results from redundant data storage.
 Improved Data Sharing
 Authorized internal and external users are
granted permission to use the database,
and each user is provided one or more
user views to facilitate this use.
 Userview- a logical description of some
portion of the database that is required by
a user to perform some task.
 Increase productivity of
Application Development
 A major advantage of the database
approach is that it greatly reduces the
cost and time for developing new
business applications.
 Enforcement of standards
 When the database approach is
implemented with full management
support, the database administration
function should be granted single-point
authority and responsibility for
establishing and enforcing data
standards.
 Improved Data Quality
 The database approach provides a
number of tools and processes to improve
data quality.
 Improved Data Accessibility and
responsiveness
 With a relational database, end users
without programming experience can
often retrieve and display data even when
it crosses traditional departmental
boundaries.
 Reduced Program Maintenance
 In Database approach, data are more
Disadvantages of Database
Approach
 New, Specialized Personnel
 Organizations that adopt the database
approach need to hire or train individuals
to design and implement databases,
provide database administration, services
and manage a staff of new people.
 Installation and Management
Cost and Complexity
 A multiuser DBMS is a large and complex
suite for software that has a high initial
cost, requires a staff
 of trained personnel to install and operate,
and also ahs substantial annual
maintenance and support costs.
 Conversion Costs
 The term “legacy systems” is widely used
to refer to older applications in an
organization that are based on file
processing and/or older database
technology.
 The cost of converting these older
systems to modern database technology –
measured in terms of dollars, time and
organizational commitment may often
seem prohibitive to an organization.
 Need for Explicit Backup and
Recovery
 A modern DBMS normally automates
many more of the backup and recovery
task than a file system.
 Organizational Conflict
 A shared database requires a consensus
on data definitions and ownership as well
as responsibilities for accurate data
maintenance.
 Experience has shown that conflicts on data
definition, data formats and coding, rights to
update and shared data, and associated issues
re frequent and often difficult to resolve.