+

William Stallings
Computer Organization
and Architecture
10th Edition

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken,

NJ. All rights reserved.
+
Chapter 1
Basic Concepts and
Computer Evolution
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 Computer Architecture
Computer Organization
• Attributes of a system visible to • Instruction set, number of bits
the programmer (Các thuộc tính used to represent various data
của hệ thống mà người lập trình types, I/O mechanisms,
có thể nhìn thấy) technique for addressing memory
• Have a direct impact on the (Tập lệnh, số bit dùng để biểu
logical execution of a program (Có diễn các kiểu dữ liệu khác nhau,
tác động trực tiếp đến việc thực cơ chế I/O, kỹ thuật đánh địa chỉ
hiện logic của một chương trình) bộ nhớ)

Architectural
Computer
attributes
Architecture
include:

Organization
Computer
al attributes
Organization
include:

• Hardware details transparent to • The operational units and their

the programmer, control signals, interconnections that realize the
interfaces between the computer architectural specifications (Các
and peripherals, memory đơn vị vận hành và các kết nối
technology used (Chi tiết phần của chúng nhằm thực hiện các
cứng minh bạch đối với lập trình thông số kỹ thuật kiến ​trúc)
viên, điều khiển tín hiệu, giao diện
giữa máy tính và các thiết bị ngoại
vi, bộ nhớ công nghệ được sử
dụng)

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+
IBM System
370 Architecture
 IBM System/370 architecture
 Was introduced in 1970 (Được giới thiệu vào năm 1970 )
 Included a number of models (Bao gồm một số mô hình)
 Could upgrade to a more expensive, faster model without having
to abandon original software (Có thể nâng cấp lên một mô hình
đắt tiền hơn, nhanh hơn mà không phải từ bỏ phần mềm gốc)
 New models are introduced with improved technology, but retain
the same architecture so that the customer’s software
investment is protected(Các mô hình mới được giới thiệu với công
nghệ cải tiến, nhưng vẫn giữ nguyên kiến ​trúc để bảo vệ khoản
đầu tư vào phần mềm của khách hàng)
 Architecture has survived to this day as the architecture of IBM’s
mainframe product line(Kiến trúc đã tồn tại cho đến ngày nay
như kiến ​trúc của dòng sản phẩm máy chủ lớn của IBM)

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+
Structure and Function
 Hierarchical system(Hệ thống phân cấp)  Structure(Cấu trúc)
 Set of interrelated subsystems(Tập hợp  The way in which
các hệ thống con có liên quan với nhau) components relate to each
other(Cách các thành phần
 Hierarchical nature of complex systems is liên quan với nhau)
essential to both their design and their
description(Bản chất phân cấp của các hệ  Function(Chức năng)
thống phức tạp là điều cần thiết cho cả
thiết kế và mô tả của chúng)  The operation of individual
components as part of the
 Designer need only deal with a particular structure(Hoạt động của
level of the system at a time(Nhà thiết kế các thành phần riêng lẻ
chỉ cần xử lý một cấp độ cụ thể của hệ như một phần của cấu trúc)
thống tại một thời điểm)
 Concerned with structure and function
at each level(Quan tâm đến cấu trúc và
chức năng ở mỗi cấp độ)

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+
Function
 There are four basic functions that a computer can perform:
 Data processing
 Data may take a wide variety of forms and the range of
processing requirements is broad
 Data storage
 Short-term
 Long-term
 Data movement
 Input-output (I/O) - when data are received from or delivered
to a device (peripheral) that is directly connected to the
computer
 Data communications – when data are moved over longer
distances, to or from a remote device
 Control
 A control unit manages the computer’s resources and
orchestrates the performance of its functional parts in
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Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Structure

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+
 CPU – controls the
operation of the computer
There are four and performs its data
main structural processing functions
components
of the  Main Memory – stores data
computer:  I/O – moves data between
the computer and its
external environment
 System Interconnection –
some mechanism that
provides for communication
among CPU, main memory,
and I/O
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+  Control Unit
CPU  Controls the operation of the CPU
and hence the computer
Major structural  Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
components:  Performs the computer’s data
processing function

 Registers
 Provide storage internal to the
CPU

 CPU Interconnection
 Some mechanism that provides
for communication among the
control unit, ALU, and registers

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+ Multicore Computer Structure
 Central processing unit (CPU)
 Portion of the computer that fetches and executes instructions
 Consists of an ALU, a control unit, and registers
 Referred to as a processor in a system with a single processing unit

 Core
 An individual processing unit on a processor chip
 May be equivalent in functionality to a CPU on a single-CPU system
 Specialized processing units are also referred to as cores

 Processor
 A physical piece of silicon containing one or more cores
 Is the computer component that interprets and executes instructions
 Referred to as a multicore processor if it contains multiple cores

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+
Cache Memory

 Multiple layers of memory between the processor and

main memory
 Is smaller and faster than main memory
 Used to speed up memory access by placing in the
cache data from main memory that is likely to be used
in the near future
 A greater performance improvement may be obtained
by using multiple levels of cache, with level 1 (L1)
closest to the core and additional levels (L2, L3, etc.)
progressively farther from the core

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 +

Figure 1.3
Motherboard with Two Intel Quad-Core Xeon
Processors
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 Figure 1.4

zEnterprise
EC12
Processor Unit
(PU)
Chip Diagram

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 Figure 1.5

zEnterprise
EC12
Core Layout

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+
History of Computers
First Generation: Vacuum Tubes

 Vacuum tubes were used for digital logic

elements and memory
 IAS computer
 Fundamental design approach was the stored program
concept
 Attributed to the mathematician John von Neumann
 First publication of the idea was in 1945 for the EDVAC
 Design began at the Princeton Institute for Advanced
Studies
 Completed in 1952
 Prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers
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+ Registers
• Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O
Memory buffer unit
register (MBR) • Or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O
unit

Memory address • Specifies the address in memory of the word to be written

register (MAR) from or read into the MBR

Instruction register • Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed

(IR)

Instruction buffer • Employed to temporarily hold the right-hand instruction

register (IBR) from a word in memory

Program counter • Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be

(PC) fetched from memory

Accumulator (AC) • Employed to temporarily hold operands and results of ALU

and multiplier operations
quotient (MQ)
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 Table 1.1

The IAS
Instruction Set

(Table can be found on page 17 in the

textbook.)
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+
History of Computers
Second Generation:
Transistors
 Smaller
 Cheaper
 Dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube
 Is a solid state device made from silicon
 Was invented at Bell Labs in 1947
 It was not until the late 1950’s that fully transistorized
computers were commercially available

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+
Table 1.2
Computer Generations

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+
Second Generation Computers

 Introduced:
 More complex arithmetic and logic units and
control units
 The use of high-level programming
languages
 Provision of system software which provided
the ability to:
 Load programs
 Move data to peripherals
 Libraries perform common computations

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© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
 History of Computers
Third Generation: Integrated Circuits

 1958 – the invention of the integrated circuit

 Discrete component
 Single, self-contained transistor
 Manufactured separately, packaged in their own containers,
and soldered or wired together onto masonite-like circuit
boards
 Manufacturing process was expensive and cumbersome

 The two most important members of the third

generation were the IBM System/360 and the DEC PDP-
8
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+  A computer consists of
Integrated gates, memory cells, and
interconnections among
Circuits these elements

 The gates and memory

 Data storage – provided by cells are constructed of
memory cells simple digital electronic
components
 Data processing – provided  Exploits the fact that such
by gates components as transistors,
resistors, and conductors can
 Data movement – the paths be fabricated from a
among components are used semiconductor such as silicon
to move data from memory
to memory and from  Many transistors can be
memory through gates to produced at the same time on
memory a single wafer of silicon

 Control – the paths among

 Transistors can be connected
with a processor metallization
components can carry
to form circuits
control signals

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Moore’s Law
1965; Gordon Moore – co-founder of Intel

Observed number of transistors that

could be put on a single chip was
doubling every year
Consequences of Moore’s law:
The pace slowed
to a doubling
every 18 months
in the 1970’s but The cost of Computer
has sustained computer The electrical becomes
logic and path length smaller and is Reduction in
that rate ever memory is shortened, more power and
Fewer
since interchip
circuitry has increasing convenient to cooling
use in a connections
fallen at a operating requirements
dramatic speed variety of
rate environments

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+
IBM System/360

 Announced in 1964
 Product line was incompatible with older IBM machines
 Was the success of the decade and cemented IBM as
the overwhelmingly dominant computer vendor
 The architecture remains to this day the architecture of
IBM’s mainframe computers
 Was the industry’s first planned family of computers
 Models were compatible in the sense that a program
written for one model should be capable of being executed
by another model in the series

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+ Family Characteristics
Similar or
Similar or
identical
identical
operating
instruction set
system

Increasing
Increasing
number of I/O
speed
ports

Increasing
Increasing cost
memory size

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 + LSI
Large
Scale
Later Integratio
n

Generation
VLSI
s Very Large
Scale
Integration

ULSI
Semiconductor Memory Ultra Large
Microprocessors Scale
Integration

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 Semiconductor Memory

In 1970 Fairchild produced the first relatively capacious semiconductor

memory
Chip was about the Could hold 256 bits Much faster than
Non-destructive
size of a single core of memory core

In 1974 the price per bit of semiconductor memory dropped below the price
There has been a continuing and
perrapid
bit of core Developments
memory in memory and processor
decline in memory cost accompanied by a
technologies changed the nature of
corresponding increase in physical memory
computers in less than a decade
density

Since 1970 semiconductor memory has been through 13 generations

Each generation has provided four times the storage density of the previous generation,
accompanied by declining cost per bit and declining access time

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+
Microprocessors
 The density of elements on processor chips continued to
rise
 More and more elements were placed on each chip so that
fewer and fewer chips were needed to construct a single
computer processor

 1971 Intel developed 4004

 First chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a single
chip
 Birth of microprocessor

 1972 Intel developed 8008

 First 8-bit microprocessor

 1974 Intel developed 8080

 First general purpose microprocessor
 Faster, has a richer instruction set, has a large addressing
capability
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Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

(a) 1970s Processors

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Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

(b) 1980s Processors

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Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

(c) 1990s Processors

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Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

(d) Recent Processors

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+
The Evolution of the Intel x86
Architecture
 Two processor families are the Intel x86 and the ARM
architectures
 Current x86 offerings represent the results of decades
of design effort on complex instruction set computers
(CISCs)
 An alternative approach to processor design is the
reduced instruction set computer (RISC)
 ARM architecture is used in a wide variety of embedded
systems and is one of the most powerful and best-
designed RISC-based systems on the market

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 Highlights of the Evolution of
the Intel Product Line:
8080 8086 80286 80386 80486
• World’s first • A more • Extension of • Intel’s first 32- • Introduced the
general- powerful 16- the 8086 bit machine use of much
purpose bit machine enabling • First Intel more
microprocesso • Has an addressing a processor to sophisticated
r instruction 16-MB support and powerful
• 8-bit machine, cache, or memory multitasking cache
8-bit data path queue, that instead of just technology
to memory prefetches a 1MB and
• Was used in few sophisticated
the first instructions instruction
personal before they pipelining
computer are executed • Also offered a
(Altair) • The first built-in math
appearance of coprocessor
the x86
architecture
• The 8088 was
a variant of
this processor
and used in
IBM’s first
personal
computer
(securing the
success
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All rights reserved.
Intel
Highlights of the Evolution of
the Intel Product Line:
Pentium
• Intel introduced the use of superscalar techniques, which allow multiple instructions to execute in
parallel
Pentium Pro
• Continued the move into superscalar organization with aggressive use of register renaming,
branch prediction, data flow analysis, and speculative execution

Pentium II
• Incorporated Intel MMX technology, which is designed specifically to process video, audio, and
graphics data efficiently

Pentium III
• Incorporated additional floating-point instructions
• Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE)

Pentium 4
• Includes additional floating-point and other enhancements for multimedia

Core
• First Intel x86 micro-core

Core 2
• Extends the Core architecture to 64 bits
• Core 2 Quad provides four cores on a single chip
• More recent Core offerings have up to 10 cores per chip
• An important addition to the architecture was the Advanced Vector Extensions instruction set

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+
Embedded Systems
 The use of electronics and software within a product
 Billions of computer systems are produced each
year that are embedded within larger devices
 Today many devices that use electric power have an
embedded computing system
 Often embedded systems are tightly coupled to
their environment
 This can give rise to real-time constraints imposed by
the need to interact with the environment
 Constraints such as required speeds of motion,
required precision of measurement, and required time
durations, dictate the timing of software operations
 If multiple activities must be managed simultaneously
this imposes more complex real-time constraints
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+
The Internet of Things (IoT)
 Term that refers to the expanding interconnection of smart devices, ranging
from appliances to tiny sensors
 Is primarily driven by deeply embedded devices
 Generations of deployment culminating in the IoT:
 Information technology (IT)
 PCs, servers, routers, firewalls, and so on, bought as IT devices by enterprise IT
people and primarily using wired connectivity
 Operational technology (OT)
 Machines/appliances with embedded IT built by non-IT companies, such as
medical machinery, SCADA, process control, and kiosks, bought as appliances by
enterprise OT people and primarily using wired connectivity
 Personal technology
 Smartphones, tablets, and eBook readers bought as IT devices by consumers
exclusively using wireless connectivity and often multiple forms of wireless
connectivity
 Sensor/actuator technology
 Single-purpose devices bought by consumers, IT, and OT people exclusively
using wireless connectivity, generally of a single form, as part of larger systems

 It is the fourth generation that is usually thought of as the IoT and it is

marked by the use of billions of embedded devices
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+
Embedded Application Processors
Operating versus
Systems Dedicated Processors

 There are two general  Application processors

approaches to developing  Defined by the processor’s ability
an embedded operating to execute complex operating
systems
system (OS):  General-purpose in nature
 Take an existing OS and  An example is the smartphone –
adapt it for the the embedded system is designed
embedded application to support numerous apps and
perform a wide variety of functions
 Design and implement an
OS intended solely for  Dedicated processor
embedded use  Is dedicated to one or a small
number of specific tasks required
by the host device
 Because such an embedded
system is dedicated to a specific
task or tasks, the processor and
associated components can be
engineered to reduce size and cost
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+
Deeply Embedded Systems
 Subset of embedded systems
 Has a processor whose behavior is difficult to observe both by the
programmer and the user
 Uses a microcontroller rather than a microprocessor
 Is not programmable once the program logic for the device has been
burned into ROM
 Has no interaction with a user
 Dedicated, single-purpose devices that detect something in the
environment, perform a basic level of processing, and then do
something with the results
 Often have wireless capability and appear in networked configurations,
such as networks of sensors deployed over a large area
 Typically have extreme resource constraints in terms of memory,
processor size, time, and power consumption

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 ARM
Refers to a processor architecture that has evolved
from RISC design principles and is used in embedded
systems
Family of RISC-based microprocessors and
microcontrollers designed by ARM Holdings,
Cambridge, England

Chips are high-speed processors that are known for

their small die size and low power requirements

Probably the most widely used embedded processor

architecture and indeed the most widely used
processor architecture of any kind in the world

Acorn RISC Machine/Advanced RISC Machine

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+
ARM Products

Cortex-M
• Cortex-M0
Cortex-R • Cortex-M0+
• Cortex-M3
Cortex-A/ • Cortex-M4
Cortex-A50

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+
Cloud Computing

 NIST defines cloud computing as:

“A model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient,

on-demand network access to a shared pool of
configurable computing resources that can be
rapidly provisioned and released with minimal
management effort or service provider interaction.”
 You get economies of scale, professional network
management, and professional security management
 The individual or company only needs to pay for the storage
capacity and services they need
 Cloud provider takes care of security

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 Cloud Networking
 Refers to the networks and network management functionality that must
be in place to enable cloud computing
 One example is the provisioning of high-performance and/or high-
reliability networking between the provider and subscriber
 The collection of network capabilities required to access a cloud,
including making use of specialized services over the Internet, linking
enterprise data center to a cloud, and using firewalls and other network
security devices at critical points to enforce access security policies

Cloud Storage
 Subset of cloud computing
 Consists of database storage and database applications hosted remotely
on cloud servers
 Enables small businesses and individual users to take advantage of data
storage that scales with their needs and to take advantage of a variety
of database applications without having to buy, maintain, and manage
the storage assets
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© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
+ Summary Basic Concepts
and Computer
Evolution
Chapter 1
 Organization and architecture
 Embedded systems
 Structure and function
 The Internet of things
 Brief history of computers  Embedded operating systems
 The First Generation: Vacuum  Application processors versus
tubes dedicated processors
 The Second Generation:  Microprocessors versus
Transistors
microcontrollers
 The Third Generation: Integrated
Circuits
 Embedded versus deeply
 Later generations
embedded systems

 The evolution of the Intel x86

 ARM architecture
architecture  ARM evolution
 Cloud computing
 Instruction set architecture
 Basic concepts
 ARM products
 Cloud services
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