CHAPTER 3

MEMORY
MANAGEMENT
PART I
 memory management
2

 In a multiprogramming system, in order to

share the processor, a number of processes
must be kept in memory.
 Memory management is achieved through
memory management algorithms.
 Each memory management algorithm
requires its own hardware support.
 In this chapter, we shall see the
partitioning, paging and segmentation
methods.
 Memory Management
3

 In order to be able to load programs at

anywhere in memory, the compiler must
generate relocatable object code.
 Also we must make it sure that a
program in memory, addresses only its
own area, and no other program’s area.
Therefore, some protection mechanism
is also needed.
 3.1 Fixed Partitioning
4

memory  In this method,

OS memory is divided
into partitions whose
n KB small
sizes are fixed.
3n Medium  OS is placed into the
KB
lowest bytes of
memory.
6n Large
KB
 Relocation of
processes is not
needed
 3.1 Fixed Partitioning
5

memory  Processes are

OS classified on entry to
the system
n KB small
according to their
3n Medium memory they
KB
requirements.
 We need one
6n Large large area Q
KB Process Queue (PQ)
for each class of
process.
 3.1 Fixed Partitioning
6

memory  If a process is selected to

allocate memory, then it
OS goes into memory and
competes for the
n KB small processor.
 The number of fixed
3n Medium partition gives the degree
KB
of multiprogramming.
 Since each queue has its
6n Large large area Q own memory region, there
KB is no competition between
queues for the memory.
 3.1 Fixed Partitioning
7

memory  The main problem

OS with the fixed
partitioning method
n KB small
is how to determine
3n
KB Medium the number of
partitions, and how
6n
KB to determine their
Large large area Q
sizes.
 Fixed Partitioning with
8
Swapping
memory  This is a version of
fixed partitioning that
OS uses RRS with some
time quantum.
2K P1 P3
 When time quantum
6K P2 P4 P5 for a process expires,
it is swapped out of
memory to disk and
the next process in
12K empty empty the corresponding
process queue is
swapped into the
memory.
 Fixed Partitioning with
9
Swapping
memory

OS

2K P1 P3
Secondary
storage 6K P2 P4 P5

12K empty empty

 Fixed Partitioning with
10
Swapping
memory

OS
Swap out
P1 P3 P1
2K
Secondary
storage 6K P2 P4 P5

12K empty empty

 Fixed Partitioning with
11
Swapping
memory

OS
Swap in
P3 P1
2K P3
Secondary
storage 6K P2 P4 P5

12K empty empty

 Fixed Partitioning with
12
Swapping
memory

OS

2K P3 P1
Secondary
storage 6K P2 P4 P5

12K empty empty

 Fixed Partitioning with
13
Swapping
memory

OS
Swap out
P3 P1 P3
2K
Secondary
storage 6K P2 P4 P5

12K empty empty

 Fixed Partitioning with
14
Swapping
memory

OS
Swap in
P1 P3
2K P1
Secondary
storage 6K P2 P4 P5

12K empty empty

 Fixed Partitioning with
15
Swapping
memory

OS

2K P1 P3
Secondary
storage 6K P2 P4 P5

12K empty empty

 fragmentation
16

memory
If a whole partition is
OS currently not being
used, then it is called
2K an external
P1 (2K) fragmentation.

6K Empty (6K)

If a partition is being
P2 (9K) used by a process
12K empty requiring some
memory smaller than
Empty (3K) the partition size,
then it is called an
internal
fragmentation.
 3.2 Variable Partitioning
17

 With fixed partitions we have to deal with the

problem of determining the number and sizes of
partitions to minimize internal and external
fragmentation.
 If we use variable partitioning instead, then
partition sizes may vary dynamically.
 In the variable partitioning method, we keep a
table (linked list) indicating used/free areas in
memory.
 3.2 Variable Partitioning
18

 Initially, the whole memory is free and it is

considered as one large block.
 When a new process arrives, the OS searches for
a block of free memory large enough for that
process.
 We keep the rest available (free) for the future
processes.
 If a block becomes free, then the OS tries to
merge it with its neighbors if they are also free.
 3.2 Variable Partitioning
19

 There are three algorithms for searching the list

of free blocks for a specific amount of memory.
 First Fit

 Best Fit

 Worst Fit
 first fit
20

 First Fit : Allocate the first free block that

is large enough for the new process.

 This is a fast algorithm.

 first fit
21

OS
P1 12 KB
Initial <FREE> 10 KB
memory
mapping

P2 20 KB
<FREE> 16 KB

P3 6 KB
<FREE> 4 KB
 first fit
22

OS
P1 12 KB
P4 of 3KB <FREE> 10 KB
arrives

P2 20 KB
<FREE> 16 KB

P3 6 KB
<FREE> 4 KB
 first fit
23

OS
P1 12 KB
P4 of 3KB
loaded here P4 3 KB
by <FREE> 7 KB
FIRST FIT

P2 20 KB
<FREE> 16 KB

P3 6 KB
<FREE> 4 KB
 first fit
24

OS
P1 12 KB
P5 of 15KB P4 3 KB
arrives <FREE> 7 KB

P2 20 KB
<FREE> 16 KB

P3 6 KB
<FREE> 4 KB
 first fit
25

OS
P1 12 KB
P5 of 15 KB
loaded here P4 3 KB
by <FREE> 7 KB
FIRST FIT

P2 20 KB
P5 15 KB
<FREE> 1 KB

P3 6 KB
<FREE> 4 KB
 Best fit
26

 Best Fit : Allocate the smallest block among those

that are large enough for the new process.
 In this method, the OS has to search the entire list, or
it can keep it sorted and stop when it hits an entry
which has a size larger than the size of new process.
 This algorithm produces the smallest left over block.
 However, it requires more time for searching all the
list or sorting it
 If sorting is used, merging the area released when a
process terminates to neighboring free blocks,
becomes complicated.
 best fit
27

OS
P1 12 KB
Initial <FREE> 10 KB
memory
mapping

P2 20 KB
<FREE> 16 KB

P3 6 KB
<FREE> 4 KB
 best fit
28

OS
P1 12 KB
P4 of 3KB <FREE> 10 KB
arrives

P2 20 KB
<FREE> 16 KB

P3 6 KB
<FREE> 4 KB
 best fit
29

OS
P1 12 KB
P4 of 3KB
loaded here <FREE> 10 KB
by
BEST FIT

P2 20 KB
<FREE> 16 KB

P3 6 KB
P4 3 KB
<FREE> 1 KB
 best fit
30

OS
P1 12 KB
P5 of 15KB <FREE> 10 KB
arrives

P2 20 KB
<FREE> 16 KB

P3 6 KB
P4 3 KB
<FREE> 1 KB
 best fit
31

OS
P1 12 KB
P5 of 15 KB
loaded here <FREE> 10 KB
by
BEST FIT

P2 20 KB
P5 15 KB
<FREE> 1 KB

P3 6 KB
P4 3 KB
<FREE> 1 KB
 worst fit
32

 Worst Fit : Allocate the largest block among those

that are large enough for the new process.
 Again a search of the entire list or sorting it is
needed.
 This algorithm produces the largest over block.
 worst fit
33

OS
P1 12 KB
Initial <FREE> 10 KB
memory
mapping

P2 20 KB
<FREE> 16 KB

P3 6 KB
<FREE> 4 KB
 worst fit
34

OS
P1 12 KB
P4 of 3KB <FREE> 10 KB
arrives

P2 20 KB
<FREE> 16 KB

P3 6 KB
<FREE> 4 KB
 worst fit
35

OS
P1 12 KB
P4 of 3KB
Loaded here <FREE> 10 KB
by
WORST FIT

P2 20 KB
P4 3 KB
<FREE> 13 KB

P3 6 KB
<FREE> 4 KB
 worst fit
36

OS
P1 12 KB
No place to <FREE> 10 KB
load P5 of 15K

P2 20 KB
P4 3 KB
<FREE> 13 KB

P3 6 KB
<FREE> 4 KB
 worst fit
37

OS
P1 12 KB
No place to <FREE> 10 KB
load P5 of 15K

P2 20 KB
P4 3 KB
<FREE> 13 KB
Compaction
is needed !! P3 6 KB
<FREE> 4 KB
 compaction
38

 Compaction is a method to overcome the

external fragmentation problem.
 All free blocks are brought together as one large
block of free space.
 Compaction requires dynamic relocation.
 Certainly, compaction has a cost and selection of
an optimal compaction strategy is difficult.
 One method for compaction is swapping out
those processes that are to be moved within the
memory, and swapping them into different
memory locations
 compaction
39

OS
P1 12 KB
Memory
mapping <FREE> 10 KB
before
compaction

P2 20 KB
P4 3 KB
<FREE> 13 KB

P3 6 KB
<FREE> 4 KB
 compaction
40

OS
P1 12 KB

P2 20 KB
Swap out
P4 3 KB P2

P3 6 KB
 compaction
41

OS
P1 12 KB
P2 20 KB Swap in
P2

Secondary
storage
P4 3 KB

P3 6 KB
 compaction
42

OS
P1 12 KB
P2 20 KB

Secondary
storage
P4 3 KB
Swap out
P4

P3 6 KB
 compaction
43

OS
P1 12 KB
P2 20 KB
P4 3 KB

Swap in Secondary
P4 with a storage
different
starting
address

P3 6 KB
 compaction
44

OS
P1 12 KB
P2 20 KB
P4 3 KB

Secondary
storage
Swap out
P3

P3 6 KB
 compaction
45

OS
P1 12 KB
P2 20 KB
P4 3 KB Swap in
P3
P3 6 KB
Secondary
storage
 compaction
46

OS
P1 12 KB
Memory P2 20 KB
mapping after
P4 3 KB
compaction
P3 6 KB
<FREE> 27 KB
Now P5 of
15KB can be
loaded here
 compaction
47

OS
P1 12 KB
P2 20 KB
P4 3 KB
P3 6 KB
P5 12 KB
<FREE> 12 KB P5 of 15KB is
loaded
 relocation
48

 Static relocation: A process may be loaded into

memory, each time possibly having a different
starting address
 Necessary for variable partitioning
 Dynamic relocation: In addition to static
relocation, the starting address of the process
may change while it is already loaded in memory
 Necessary for compaction