Complete Exam Preparation Notes

(Based on H.M. Rashid Topics)

SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)
- Operation: 4-layer PNPN device with 3 junctions (J1, J2, J3). Controlled by Gate signal →
device switches from OFF to ON.

- Triggering (Firing Angle, α): Delay angle at which SCR gate pulse is applied.

- Turn-On Methods: Forward voltage triggering, Gate triggering, dv/dt triggering, Thermal
triggering, Light triggering (LASCR).

- di/dt & dv/dt Protection: Inductor for di/dt, Snubber (RC) for dv/dt.

- Holding vs Latching Current: IL > IH. Latching current needed to turn ON, Holding current
needed to remain ON.

TRIAC
- Definition: Bidirectional device conducting in both halves of AC.

- Terminals: MT1, MT2, Gate.

- Uses: Light dimmers, Fan regulators, AC motor speed control, Heater control.

IGBT
- Hybrid: Combines MOSFET gate with BJT conduction.

- High input impedance, low conduction loss, high current handling.

- Applications: Inverters, SMPS, motor drives, induction heating.

Power Transistor in Refrigerator

- Used in compressor inverter circuits for energy efficiency.

- Replaces relays in inverter refrigerators.

SMPS
- Preferred due to high efficiency, compact size, less heat, wide input range.
- Uses MOSFETs as switching devices.

- Modes: Flyback, Forward, Buck, Boost.

Buck-Boost Chopper
- DC–DC converter, Output can be < or > Input.

- Modes: Continuous and Discontinuous.

- Applications: Battery charging, UPS.

Reverse Recovery Time of Diode

- Time for diode to switch from conducting to blocking.

- Important in high-frequency rectifiers.

MOSFET (D vs E type)
- D-MOSFET: Normally ON, requires negative gate to turn OFF.

- E-MOSFET: Normally OFF, requires positive gate to turn ON.

Cycloconverter
- Converts AC at one frequency to lower frequency.

- Applications: Low-speed, high-power drives.

PWM
- Controls average power delivered to load.

- Applications: SMPS, motor drives, inverters.

Multiphase vs Single Phase Rectifier

- Multiphase: Higher DC output, less ripple.

- Single-phase: Simpler but poor performance.

UJT
- Negative resistance device.

- Applications: Relaxation oscillators, SCR triggering.

UPS Switching Devices
- MOSFETs and IGBTs commonly used in UPS inverters.

- High efficiency and fast switching.

PWM Inverter
- Uses PWM signals for AC generation from DC.

- Modes: Single pulse, multiple pulse, sinusoidal PWM.

AC Voltage Regulators
- Control AC output by phase control or integral cycle control.

- Applications: light dimmers, motor control.

Duty Cycle
- Ratio of ON time to total time in a switching period.

- D = Ton / (Ton + Toff).

Resonant Pulse Converter

- Operates at resonant frequency using LC components.

- Provides zero-voltage/zero-current switching.

Freewheeling Diode
- Placed across inductive load to provide path for current when switch is OFF.

- Protects switching devices and reduces voltage spikes.

Chopper
- DC–DC converter.

- Step-down (Buck), Step-up (Boost), Buck-Boost, Cuk types.

Delay Angle
- Delay given to gate pulse in controlled rectifiers.

- α = firing angle.
Pulse Transformer
- Used to isolate and transfer gate pulses to SCR/triac.

- Provides electrical isolation and impedance matching.

Matrix Converter
- Direct AC–AC converter without DC link.

- Applications: motor drives, high power applications.

Heat Sink
- Used to dissipate heat in semiconductor devices.

- Aluminum fins, forced air cooling.

Power Supply Block Diagram

- AC → Transformer → Rectifier → Filter → Regulator → DC output.

- Waveforms: AC input, pulsating DC, filtered DC, regulated DC.

PLL (Phase Locked Loop)

- Synchronizes output frequency with input reference.

- Blocks: Phase detector, Low pass filter, VCO, Amplifier.

SCR Applications
- Controlled rectifiers, Inverters, AC regulators, Motor control.

BJT vs FET/MOSFET
- BJT: Current controlled, low input impedance.

- MOSFET: Voltage controlled, high input impedance.

Multiplexing
- Combining multiple signals over single channel.

- Types: TDM, FDM, WDM.

IC Fabrication
- Steps: Oxidation, Photolithography, Diffusion, Ion implantation, Metallization, Packaging.

CMRR
- Common Mode Rejection Ratio = Adiff / Acm.

- Expressed in dB: 20 log(Adiff/Acm).

Slew Rate
- Maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit time.

- Unit: V/µs.

Wein Bridge Oscillator

- RC feedback oscillator producing sinusoidal waveform.

- Used in audio frequency generation.

UJT Operation
- When emitter voltage reaches peak point, current increases and device enters negative
resistance region.

SNR Formula
- SNR = Signal Power / Noise Power.

- In dB: 10 log10(S/N).

Pinch-off & Cut-off Voltage

- Pinch-off: Vds at which Id saturates in JFET.

- Cut-off: Vgs at which Id becomes zero.

Push-Pull Amplifier
- Two transistors operate alternately to amplify both halves of signal.

- Reduces distortion and improves efficiency.

D Flip-Flop
- Stores data on clock edge.

- Q = D at clock pulse.

Flip-Flop vs Latch
- Latch: Level triggered.

- Flip-flop: Edge triggered.

Tri-State Buffer
- Output can be 0, 1, or High Impedance.

- Used in buses.

TDMA
- Time Division Multiple Access: Divides channel into time slots.

- Used in GSM.

Serial vs Parallel Communication

- Serial: One bit at a time, long distance, cheaper.

- Parallel: Multiple bits at once, faster, short distance.

PCB Software
- Examples: Proteus, Eagle, Altium Designer, KiCad.

Smith Chart
- Used in RF and antenna design for impedance matching.

- Simplifies complex impedance calculations.

Microwave Frequency Range

- 1 GHz – 300 GHz.
Pass Band & Stop Band
- Pass Band: Frequency range allowed to pass.

- Stop Band: Frequency range attenuated.

DRAM vs SRAM
- DRAM: Uses capacitors, slower, needs refresh.

- SRAM: Uses flip-flops, faster, no refresh, costly.

FPGA Modeling
- Types: Behavioral, Structural, RTL (Register Transfer Level).

Bus Types
- Unidirectional, Bidirectional, Multidirectional.

- Example: Data bus (bidirectional), Address bus (unidirectional).

RISC vs CISC
- RISC: Simple instructions, faster execution.

- CISC: Complex instructions, fewer lines of code.

BIU (Bus Interface Unit)

- Part of microprocessor that handles data transfer between CPU and memory/peripherals.

Coupling in ICs
- Capacitive, Inductive, Direct coupling.

MODEM
- Modulator-Demodulator.

- Converts digital signals to analog and back for communication.